Is the human race on a collision course for its own destruction?

Before I begin I feel that I need to express a point. The point I must make is that this is my opinion about this chosen topic and I hope it will be read with a open mind and not cast down before it has been finished. What I would like to discuss in written form is ‘Is the human race on a collision course for its own destruction' which needs no further addressment by myself but I feel the need to express a point or two. Human life has existed on this planet for a relatively short amount of time considering the age of the planet upon which we inhabit. We have evolved on Earth from a simple ‘goo' that has been dubbed ‘primordial soup' by those ever clever scientists. This fact maybe false by religious standards but it is the most likely solution to the problem of how we came to be. For Christian people we were came to be by an omnipotent being that took out the time to create two people, Adam and Eve, and I think that this is a good example of peoples delusions of supremacy. For thousands of years now man and woman have played an overwhelming part in the development of this planet usually with the misconception that Earth is theirs and theirs alone and everything else is just here for are needs. We have destroyed landscape to accommodate our needs of hoes, farmland and entertainment. This is normally done with little regard for the previous inhabitants be they man or beast, especially concerning the treatment of native Indians on what is now American soil. All this is done for ‘progress', the usual excuse so that the superior people can beat on the weak. The advancement in technology is aided by the legions of great scientific minds which always seem to be controlled by some military power somewhere in the shadows watching, with interest what it is that is created next. As soon as a more advanced technology is developed it is used to show strength over neighbouring countries be they friend or foe. One of the biggest problems is that all this technology can and probably be used to destroy each other as long as they are continually brought under the control of power mongers such as governments run by politicians. To think that our own destruction is a certainty is an incorrect opinion to have, there are many variables that could change any future timeline, so who knows what the future will hold for us. There is always the chance for reformation where humanity will realise that they are in control of their fate and don't have to conform to human natures tendency to try and destroy itself. For those whoa re fans of science fiction it may be apparent that Earth is either depicted as a world in trouble, with a large population and lots of pollution like in such movies as Blade Runner and others. The other side of this point is seen in such programs as Star Trek where humanity has been united with the thought that they are not alone in the universe. The program depicts a highly advanced culture that has broke free from the corruptive shekels of money and governmental rule. When people realise that there is only one race on Earth and that is the Human Race then they will be able to get along better. Money also presents a problem, that's not to say it should be abolished and communism should take president because it has been shown time and time again that it cannot work in today's world. I think the best thing to do is carry on with existence doing the best you can to make life just a bit easier for yourself and others around. If you can do that I am confident that everything will fall into place and sort itself out.

Discuss the dramatic impact of act 2 scene 2 Essay

To achieve maximum impact in this scene, unconventional methods should be used to show how Macbeth is slowly beginning to slip into madness. Shakesphere has added an owl shrieking, this is to perhaps set up a dark atmosphere to link the scene with evil. The owl’s shriek should just begin as Macbeth kills Duncan to show that a evil deed has been committed. Shakephere has deliberately not shown you the actual murder-taking place to show guilt and also by not seeing it we are left to imagine the murder-taking place and may, perhaps, have more affect on the viewer. It can be imagined as being bloodier than it really is. As Macbeth enters on to the stage with bloody hand he should drop to his knees to show how he realizes that what he has done is so evil and it also shows how a psychological impact is starting to take place on him. As Lady Macbeth enters, she should enter slowly and silently to symbolize how the witches disappear and appear as if from nowhere. This shows how evil she is and cold hearted. She should remain calm as if to show no feelings towards what has happened. Lady Macbeth just wants to get back to bed and have the deed finished quickly. As Macbeth begins to tell his speech of how the guards were talking in there sleep, ‘one cried, god bless us! And amen the other.’ Macbeth should say it slowly as if he is worried and as he comes to say the word ‘amen’ he should stutter as if to show he still cannot say it. This shows the evil taking over Macbeth as anything related to good he has problems saying. Lady Macbeth would not commit the deed herself because as Duncan sleeps she resembles her father but she would be happy to kill her own baby as shown earlier on in the book. However she will make sure that the deed is complete without any problems by framing the two servants. A feint knocking should start in the background of the scene as Lady Macbeth departs to finish off the deed, the knocking should be in such away so that it resembles a heartbeat. Macbeth at this point should start scrubbing hands vigorously to show that there seems to be an everlasting amount of blood, like a sea of blood. This shows how evil the deed was and how bloody it was also. The knocking should get louder and faster to resemble Macbeths heart beat slowly getting faster as he gets more nervous and as he slowly begins to slip into madness. In this scene the stage should be mainly dark, there should be no lights focused upon Macbeth or Lady Macbeth to show that they are in darkness and evil. The lighting should be positioned in a way so that they are behind the two characters showing how they have left the light and goodness into the darkness and evil. Macbeth should enter the stage and collapse not starting to speak for several seconds to show how Macbeth it thinking of what he has done. Macbeth should breathe heavily to show his fear and anxiety. He should stare at the daggers and keep his eyes fixed on the daggers until he gives them to Lady Macbeth. This shows how he realizes that the deed is wrong but it is too late to late to go back and change what he has done. This shows that Macbeth is slowly beginning to slip into madness. Macbeth should shout most of his lines where as Lady Macbeth should whisper to show that Lady Macbeth is calm at this point where as Macbeth is scared and angry. The shriek that the owl makes should be loud and fast to show that the murder has been carried out quickly and smoothly. As Macbeth begins to clean the blood off his hands he should scrub it clean off but carry on to show that he is seeing his hands as being still covered in blood but are really clean. This shows that he is going mad.

A Study Of The Indigenous People Of The Masai And Samburu Rite Of Passage And How The National Government Can Play A Role In Preserving The Culture Of The Two Communities

A Study Of The Indigenous People Of The Masai And Samburu Rite Of Passage And How The National Government Can Play A Role In Preserving The Culture Of The Two Communities Traditions practiced by the Indigenous people, like the Samburu and Maasai, can be very questionable to us foreigners. After this week’s readings and videos, I feel that I can relate and understand them more though. What I found most intriguing were the rites of passages between the Samburu and Maasai. Although I cannot emphasize with the men and women of the tribes, I understand their devotion to the community’s traditions and culture. I also want to discuss throughout this essay is national governments involvement in the indigenous culture and community. There are different sides as to whether or not the government should encourage pastoralist to be more sedentary and I hope to come to my own conclusive thoughts by the end of the essay. The rites of passages for boys and girls of both indigenous tribes that we’ve read about are cruel and harmful, but they also come with a much greater reward. Maasai boys who go through circumcisions are taught that it is the only way to become a man and a full member of the indigenous society. Girls are treated much differently in the Maasai culture. Maasai girls think that they have no choice and no power when it comes to their family and tradition. In the circumcise traditions we can blatantly see the gendered divisions. I understand the traditional sense of circumcision for males and females, but I never knew about female circumcision. In America male circumcision is much more common therefore it makes sense why I understand it more. The one aspect I do not agree with in the tradition of circumcision is the pain that both boys and girls have to go through. While the actually process is only a couple of minutes, post procedure seems unbearable and disturbing. I don’t think a tradition should be followed if death is possible, but maybe that is what makes it worth it in the indigenous culture. The indigenous communities hold a lot of spiritual beliefs and follow what we might believe are myths, but does that make it wrong? One big sense I developed this week is how black and white our cultures can be. When one individual does not follow the same path as their community then they are outcast and that seems to be true in the indigenous culture and American culture. Girls who decide against their family and societal traditions are treated unfairly, but boys are treated somewhat differently. Boys who are educated, for example, or gone at school during the rites of passages still have the option to become a man and be accepted in their community. These initiations come with many privileges as well such as marriage. Another gendered difference is the processes for illiterate women. Illiterate women must go through a complete circumcision while educated men can wait. I also noticed the portrayed female stereotype in the indigenous society. Women are seen as sexual objects that must be contained and treated. Circumcision is supposed to heal girls to become mature, clean, and acceptable for marriage. This procedure, for women, is supposed to maintain their sexual appetites and unwanted pregnancies, but why not for the men? Some women would rather go to extremes like unsafe abortions than tell their family and be treated like outcast. In many of the traditional initiations, animals are involved. I have a soft spot for animals and so I understand government influences but it is difficult to ignore the indigenous culture and practices. I think a sedentary lifestyle is much more preferred in our American culture, but we don’t always think about how it will effect their lifestyle and social lives in the indigenous culture. By killing lions, for example, it expresses a boys transition to manhood, but also decides his role in the community. If a boy is unable to kill, hunt, or drink the blood of an animal they are basically worthless to the society. If government were to restrict their practices and traditions they could destroy the indigenous social life. I do not think the government should be able to control a community’s traditions or religious beliefs, but simply advocate. I don’t think we should mandate an entire culture because it does not comply with the majority. Pastoralists of Africa rely heavily on their agriculture for mobility, trades, and mass productivity of their herds as well. Livestock is the main cause for poverty in Africa. For a while, pastoralists were unable to out insurance, but now there is a way for both pastoralist and financial institutions to. The solution can only be passed and initiated through the government though. It should be the government’s duty to provide communal grazing land and water resources. These should be rights to the indigenous people and engrained in the law. I think if the government were to provide these resources then the indigenous communities can pursue a nomadic daily life. As much as I think the government should not be allowed to dictate traditional and religious practices, I also think it might be necessary for a solution. I respect the indigenous traditions because they rely solely on their community and family to reproduce these traditions with intense emotions. Unfortunately these undeveloped countries also need government assistance to pursue and reciprocate their traditions. I think if the indigenous people had the resources and education they would also comprehend the agriculture dilemmas they face and the positive reinforcements that the government can provide.

Marketing Research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Marketing Research - Essay Example I believe that Paradise Foods should discontinue its promotion of LaTreat and instead get behind the concept of Sweet Dream. Barbara Mayer has her own self-interest at heart when she says that LaTreat should be the sole focus of the company’s strategic efforts. LaTreat has now been established in the market for a few years, but the product’s growth rate is slowing down. For Paradise Foods to retain a stake in the frozen desserts market, a new product needs to recapture some of the customers who were once loyal to LaTreat but have since grown tired of it. In addition, there has been increased competition in the market, and this has had an adverse effect on the sales of the product. The frozen desserts market has expanded significantly since LaTreat first entered the market, and in fact the market has since outgrown the product. This can be evidenced by the fact that revenues for the product did not grow at all in 1986 and 1987. My recommendation to you is that neither La Treat nor Sweet Dream is discarded, but rather both products are promoted together. While this may seem like cannibalizing, in fact both products can work in tandem to pick up customers who fall through the cracks. From the BehaviorScan data, I have managed to break down the customers of LaTreat into four main categories: Loyalists, Trial Users, Accelerators, and Switch-on-Deal customers. Currently, LaTreat is only picking up customers of the latter two categories. Many of the current customers of LaTreat do not feel any long-term loyalty towards the brand or only make purchases when promotions are on offer. For any product to grow long term, these are not the types of customers who will help contribute to this success. This is, however, where Sweet Dream comes in and fills a gap. Loyalists and Trial Users are extremely hard to pick up through using an already existing product because the â€Å"wow† factor has gone. However, Sweet Dream is a brand new product to the market an d is likely to experience a â€Å"honeymoon† period during the first few months after release. The customers who remain loyal to one brand for a sustained period of time are highly sought after, so everything should be done to not only attract them, but keep them as loyal customers. The initial data that I have gathered around Sweet Dream suggest that the product has the potential to be a hit. The data show that Sweet Dream received a three market share in Midland and Pittsfield after only six months. The trial rate was 15 percent, while the repurchase rate was 45%. These figures are all astounding, and even if the product could not sustain these numbers over the long term, it would still capture a significant portion of the market share. To sum up, my recommendation to you is that the committee reconsiders Sweet Dream, except this time in conjunction with LaTreat. While there would have to be competition from an outsiders’ point of view, the two products could be mark eted to different sections of the market. The competition between the two products would be minimal at best; this would be to try and build up the brand image of Paradise Foods rather than result in the promotion of one product line. I would even be willing to work with Barbara Mayer to

Shinto and Oral Religions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Shinto and Oral Religions - Essay Example Kojiki is one of the Japanese literatures that had successfully compiled the Japanese mythology and traditional Ancient of Japan including the Shinto Rituals. (Chamberlain, p. i) On the other hand, Nihongi or Nihon Shoki is one of the oldest classical books that tackled the Japanese history (Aston, p. xv). Similar to Kojiki, Nihon Shoki has a series of compiled myths and oral tradition that occurred back in the 8th century (ibid). Oral religion, based on the word ‘oral’, means that a religious practice of a particular religion has been passed on from one culture to another or from one generation to the next generation verbally. Aside from the Kojiki – the records of ancient matters and the Nihongi or Nihon Shoki – the chronicles of Japan which was written back in AD 712 and AD 720 respectively (Chamberlain, p. I; Sakamoto, p. 31), Shinto can be considered as an oral religion due to the fact that there are no other concrete scripture that can be used as a basis of such religion. Shinto is different from oral traditions because the practice of Shinto takes place in four different ways which including: (1) the Shine Shinto which means worship at a public or private shrine; (2) Folk Shinto which includes divination, shamanic healing, abstinence and other forms of purification customs; (3) Sect Shinto which includes the act of participating in one of the thirteen groups of the 19th century; and (4) the State Shinto which includes the act of participating in festivals as a way of honoring the Japanese emperors (Mosher, pp. 168 – 169). Even though there is a strong similarity between Shinto and oral religion, it remains a fact that Shinto can never be considered as an oral tradition due to the fact that the practice of Shrine Shinto, Folk Shinto, Sect Shinto, and State Shinto is being passed on from one generation to another generation based on the actual

Truman's Decision Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Truman's Decision - Essay Example Critics may give many reasons as to why the President’s decision was not right, including humanitarian ones, but a keen examination of what might have happened had Japan not been bombed reveals that the President was right on several accounts. First, the Japanese initiated an attack on the US by attacking the Pearl Harbor. That was despite the fact that the Japanese Government and the US Governments were engaged in diplomatic negotiations. The Japanese also proved to be a vicious enemy who could only agree to submit under serious attack such as the two Bombings. Another argument that greatly supports the attack is the avoidance of deaths and casualties due to the war. Ironically, the two atomic bombs served to save many lives, both American and Japanese, that would have been lost had the war continued. The estimated mortality and casualty rate due to planned land invasions into Japan was high. Many Soldiers and Japanese civilians would have lost their lives in the invasions. However, the bombings ended the war and thus helped avoid further deaths. One may also argue that the President may have made the decision to serve as a deterrent measure. It served to drive fear into the enemy of the US’s military capabilities . The fear generated thus helped to stop them in their tracks as they realized that any further attack on the US would attract an equally or more devastating attack by the

International Commercial Arbitration and Privity of Contract Essay

International Commercial Arbitration and Privity of Contract - Essay Example What is international commercial arbitration? International commercial arbitration is a way in which parties can use an alternative method of dispute resolution on an international level. International law however does not clearly and concisely define what it is in reality. Alternatively, the UNCITRAL contains a Model Law which governs and defines more clearly international commercial arbitration as â€Å"any arbitration whether or not administered by a permanent arbitral institution†.1 David also provides a definition which states that ICA is a tool by which parties can settle a question by decisions of third parties â€Å"who derive their powers from a private agreement, not from the authorities of a State, and who are to decide the case on the basis of such an agreement†.2 Indeed, arbitration clauses are often specifically contained in contracts, which are specified as binding on the parties outside of court: ICA is binding privately according to the agreement of the parties.3 The purpose of the UNCITRAL Model Law is to aid states in reforming and brining up to date their national laws and regulations on the process of arbitration and it was adopted and implemented globally some 26 years ago.4 The Model Law is comprehensive and applies to all signatory states in many areas of ICA, including the recognition and enforcement of orders and awards, though states are not obliged to directly apply the law in their domain. Such countries prefer to use the Model Law as a framework which they adapt to coincide with their own national laws, economic systems, and public policy norms. Privity of Contract in International Commercial Arbitration Privity of contract requires that all parties to an agreement must voluntarily commit to the agreement for it to be enforceable; this is otherwise termed as mutual consent. In an ICA context, it can thus be applied to state that the parties to a contractual arbitration clause must voluntarily agree to the content of t he clause before it can be deemed binding upon the parties. Essentially, it is stated that arbitration without privity is not enforceable; particularly if â€Å"coercion, fraud,...[and]... lack of identity of the parties† is evident.5 Privity of contract thus aims to provide an equal playing field for both parties who come from different counties, as it allows them to rely on arbitration clauses in order â€Å"to be free of national procedural and substantive law†.6 ICA thus allows disputes which may arise between parties to become subject to regulations which are on a different level to the national laws of the parties so that claims concerning international privity of contract may be avoided. By agreeing on an alternative method of arbitration, both parties are able to be defined as autonomously agreeing to settle their disputes in a value-free manner. However, this again is differently viewed in practice, as many express concern in relation to privity of contract be cause parties to a contract may not be said to be parties to the international regulations on ICA. This claim is further aggravated by the fact that the UNCITRAL in particular is often altered or adjusted to fit in with national law, and its content is thus

Financial Statements Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Financial Statements - Essay Example Yet, as much as they try to be absolutely accurate, the American Institute of Accountants has said, "They (financial statements) reflect a combination of recorded facts and accounting conventions and personal judgments; and judgments and conventions applied affect them materially" (cited in Yamamoto 2000 ch5). It is the job of the accountant to use sound personal judgment to quantify a company's finances to assure they are accurate and truthful. To understand the importance of the financial statement it's necessary to examine the information it contains and how it is utilized. Many people view financial statements as a picture of absolute financial accuracy. They do contain statements on sales, expenses, assets, and liabilities. The numbers all match and balance. However, according to Hooke, "... a fair number of accounts rely heavily on the educated judgment of management and the corporate auditor" (Hooke 1998 p.153). The accountant assures that these educated judgments are a fair representation of the company's financial status. When a financial statement is read, there are assumptions made that help to accurately interpret the numbers. By the use of conventions, statements are standardized to assure that they will present an accurate view of the business. One convention is that asset value is based on the original value. No account would be taken due to changing prices over time. Equipment would be depreciated against its original cost, not the replacement cost. Another common convention is that transactions are recorded when they are completed, not when the money changes hands. Sales can be recorded even though payment may not be due for several months. The accountant's personal judgment that adheres to the concepts and conventions of accounting can help assure that the financial statement will present a true and fair view of a business's activities. The financial statement is made up of several key components. They usually include a balance sheet, a profit and loss account, a cash flow statement, and an equity statement. They will also include complex explanatory notes and disclaimers, which serve to clarify the accuracy of the numbers. Taken together, these items form the core of the financial statement. The balance sheet in its simplest form is a statement of the assets a firm owns and who finances their ownership. It is a balance of assets and liabilities. Assets are the aggregate value of land, buildings, vehicles, equipment, and debtors. Liabilities are what the firm is liable for. Liabilities include loans, debt, and shareholder equity. Though the balance sheet indicates the value to the business' assets and the full extent of ownership and funding, it should not be confused with a valuation statement (Tiffin 2004 p.198). There are several conventions for formatting a balance sheet, though the IASB has made some attempt at harmonizing them. In the UK, the generally accepted layout is the published accounts format. It contains fixed assets such as land and buildings and the intangible assets of goodwill. It also shows the total amount of investment assets. The liabilities are broken down into capital, profit or loss, and creditors. To this point the financial statement is little more than common bookkeeping. A firm records it income and records and classifies its expenses. Yet, this simplistic approach does not serve the

Work, Labor, Play by Auden Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Work, Labor, Play by Auden - Essay Example nished object, product or durable object. The focus is more on the activities making up the process of producing something rather than on the ?nished object† (Maycroft). In other words, work can be said to be done if a finished product is obtained out of the work. On the other hand, it is not necessary that labor produces any finished product. According to Stephen Palmquist, â€Å"labor is any form of life-sustaining effort that is rooted in the "biological process". Work is any form of creative productivity that results in "worldliness"† (Palmquist). In scientific terms, work is said to be done only of the object changes displaces from its initial position. If the object is not displaced, we cannot say that work is done. In that case, we can use the term labor instead of work. In short, work and labor are controversial terms, which are difficult to define. WH Auden in his article, â€Å"work, labor, play†, has defined work, labor and play in different manner. Thi s paper analyses the differences between work and labor and the relationship play has with work and labor. According to Auden, â€Å"A man is a labourer if the job society offers him is of no interest to himself but he is compelled to take it by the necessity of earning a living and supporting his family† (Auden).... Between labour and play stands work. A man is a worker if he is personally interested in the job which society pays him to do; what from the point of view of society is necessary labour is from his own point of view voluntary play (Auden). Play is the activity people often undertake because of their interest. David Beckham is a Football player who plays Football because of his interest in it. Same way, Sachin Tendulkar is a cricket player since he enjoys cricket as a player. However, we cannot label either Sachin or Beckham as labours or workers even though they are doing lot of hard works while playing. It is a fact that they are getting decent money for their work as cricket or football player. Even then, it is impossible to mark them as workers. On the other hand, Steve Jobs and Bill Gates can be labelled as workers. They are excellent professionals who work with enthusiasm and interest in their profession. It is difficult for Gates or Jobs to excel in a sales or accounting profes sion. If these people somehow forced to work in sales or accounting profession, we cannot label them as workers anymore. In such cases, they are only labourers according to the arguments of Auden. In short, play is an activity, which is done fully for enjoyment purpose whereas labour is an activity which is done only for wages; not for enjoyment. Auden argues that the position of work is in between these two; play and labour. In other words, work is done not only for wages but also for enjoyment. Leisure is another activity in which workers and labourers differ widely. According to the views of Auden, â€Å"to a worker, leisure means simply the hours he needs to relax and rest in order to work efficiently whereas to the labourer, leisure means freedom from

Case study #3 Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

#3 - Case Study Example Age: with the advancement of age, the condition of presbycussis may become more profound having started from early adulthood sometimes from as young as 18 years. It may occur due to prolonged exposure to noise. Noise inducement: in case one gets exposed at a time to very high frequency sounds, then one can become either partially or permanently deaf. It may be due to destruction of sensorineural nerves. The higher the pitch of the sound exposed to may vary the extent of damage to the ear. Very high noise causes a higher degree of damage in much shorter time than low levels of noise. Genetics: sometimes deafness conditions can be hereditary. Where dominant genes exist between parents, the higher are the chances of the offspring acquiring deafness. Modern science identifies non syndrome and recessive types of deafness. Boys Town Hospital is an institute in Nebraska researching genetic and hereditary deafness. Their website reveals genetic fact sheets and information regarding syndromes related to deafness. Moreover, they offer recruitment to people willing to learn about hearing impairment. It is duly registered by the Registry for Research on Hereditary Hearing Impairment. Lastly, New York Rockefeller has also conducted studies investigating non-syndrome impairment. Other Universities and Medical research institutes across the globe have taken steps to ease the diagnosis and possible remedies on the condition. Ferdinand Berthier was an intellectual and an educator in the late 19th century in France. He was born deaf. He was also a political organiser in France politics. He was the founder of the first organisation that took good care of deaf people. He fought for recognition of deaf people in such capacities as political seats, leadership roles in organisations, stating that disability is not inability. The aim of the organization was, â€Å"to bring together all the deaf

Analytical Support for Decision Making Self Reflection Essay Example for Free

Analytical Support for Decision Making Self Reflection Essay The analytical support for decision making course is really indeed touching every aspect from my daily job as a lead optimization engineer dealing with a huge drilling real time streaming data. In the past I have worked to prepare quarter review annual report for our center. Honestly, it was consuming a lot of time to construct a valuable presentation that will impress the upper management. As of time being ASDM is a strong aid to be creative in utilizing, analyzing, projecting illustrating for our daily data. Here I will highlight major subjects that I got so many benefits from: Data Gathering ASDM is a real guide to perform data analysis. It learns the first steps in how to gather data how to deal with it. The good part in the assignment is the data was real and taken from World Bank website and the challenge is to identify the best data find out ways to get the missing data by quantitative approaches. The lesson learned here is any data has to go through cleansing process to be worth for analysis to reach trustful results. Surveys As we are seeing many surveys floating around in every single website or newspapers in the media, the real question is how trustful the results are. Now with ASDM approaches, it is easier to now that, to dig deep in the survey process. How the survey was done, whom were the sample, location and the time it was conducted. In addition to the right guide in how to do different types surveys analyze the results for best decisions. Regression As regression deals with trends to find out the relationship level criteria help a lot in projection. In my daily work I’m dealing with many drilling trends, like the drilling rig hook load (HKL), surface torque while performing the drilling operation. My job is to identify the strong relationship between many drilling parameters do a projection. Like for HKL torque utilizing regression to find out the regression model in a specific formation will help us in identifying the normal / upnoraml trends prior drilling operation for better optimization savings. In addition the regression will help a lot in the projection ahead to the final drilling target depth. MCDA Multi criteria decision analysis is the decision maker best tool to identify take in consideration all the factors with relative to their weights influence in the subject matter. Real life is chain of continuous MCDA has to be taken but differs in size complication. Although, VISA software is a simple light, it is superior software to include every single step illustrate it with a nice simple way. Personally we are running many projects that take in consideration several factors MCDA is the best guide came at the right time.

Performance Management systems Essay Example for Free

Performance Management systems Essay 1. What is the main goal of a Performance Management System? Performance management systems are designed to improve both individual and organisational performance by identifying what skills are needed to perform a role, providing regular feedback and assisting the employees in their career development. The overall aim is to equip staff with the competencies and commitment to deliver on shared organisational goals . 2. Why is it necessary to develop and implement a Performance Management System? A well developed performance management system assist to develop staff and can result in significantly improved output and performance, which ultimately leads to improved results for the organisation. Without a well developed and implemented performance management system, an organisation can risk poor staff performance and a high turnover of staff due to lack of support. 3. What are the three stages of Performance Management? †¢ planning for performance – setting performance goals, establishing performance standards and setting performance expectations, identifying developmental goals in work (action) plans †¢ performance appraisal – observing, documenting and assessing performance †¢ performance improvement – providing regular feedback, review performance appraisal, rewarding excellent performance 4. List the four groups who are involved in Performance Management? †¢ your team †¢ you, as a supervisor †¢ human resource professional †¢ union representatives. 5. Why is it necessary to ensure that performance management and review processes are consistent with business objectives and policies? Staff performance plans must be based on the overall aims and objectives of the organisation so as to ensure that each staff member is working cohesively towards the same goal. They must also adhere to organisational policies so as to ensure that they are fair and consistent across the organisation. This also assures that they comply with legislation (that is, presuming that the policies set out stipulate this). 6. Write a paragraph explaining why you think performance evaluations are necessary and the method/s that you consider best to be utilized. I think the importance of performance evaluations is twofold. In my experience, working in an extremely under-resourced organisation, it has been very difficult for me in the past to gain feedback from my supervisors about my performance. One to one time with a manager is rare. This has at times resulted in frustration because I have felt as though I have not been able to gain direction in my work. I fear that at times this may be the case for the staff that I supervise also. Therefore, I believe that on one level performance management systems are extremely important as a method of support for staff. On a more obvious note, performance management systems can also lead to improved output and performance of individuals, which ultimately leads to improved results for the organisation. In terms of what method I believe to be most effective, I believe that there are some core principles that must be followed. The plans should be developed with staff so as to ensure owndership, implementation must be consistent and timely (3 month reviews shouldn’t be undertaken at 7 months! ). 7. Why is it important that both managers and employees receive suitable training in how to handle performance review interviews? Without training about how to handle performance review interviews, there is a very big risk that the appraisal will not be effective and even more concerning is that it could prove counterproductive and damage the supervisor/employee relationship. Training equips managers and team leaders with skills to conduct positive appraisals. It assist employees to understand the new relationships and how performance issues are openly discussed and resolved. Training sessions also can assist employee to see how their work links to the goals of the organisation. 8. Explain why and how often you think performance appraisals should be held? I believe performance appraisals should be held after 3 months in a role and then every 6 months following this. I write this in the context of the organisation for which I work. One to one time with your manager is difficult in our organisation and I believe that in the past this has led to staff feeling very unsupported. There has been quite a high turnover of staff in some programs and I believe that this could be addressed by stronger support systems in place from management. While some may argue that appraisals at such regular intervals can be difficult for managers to implement due to time constraints, I believe firmly that this investment will be returned in increased staff output. 9. Why is it important to recognize the contribution of your work group members and why should you do this? Recognising the contribution of group members is an important method of motivating staff. It reinforces positive contributions and shows their importance to the organisation. If the contribution of staff members is not recognised, it risks losing the motivation of a team who may feel that their work is for no purpose and is not appreciated. We all need a thanks! 10. List three pieces of legislation that are related to performance management †¢ Fair Work Act (2009) †¢ Workplace Health and Safety Act (1995) †¢ Awards/Enterprise Bargaining Agreements/Union Collective Agreements. 11. How would you devise a training plan incorporating both monitoring and coaching for individuals with poor performance? It is important to spend time to time to try and understand why a staff member may have poor performance. This is important in determining what action to take – be that formal training or coaching. The following points – from the course book – I would certainly include in any coaching I was to undertake: †¢Good coaches challenge employees and ask questions that help the employee to discover how to improve. †¢Coach when you wish to focus attention on any specific aspect of the employee’s performance. †¢A coaching meeting should focus on just one or two aspects of performance. †¢Any more than that and employees won’t remember the main impact of your meeting. †¢Keep coaching conversations brief and between 5 to 10 minutes long. †¢Being an effective coach requires understanding what motivates the members of your team. Remember that people are motivated in different ways. Be sensitive to the things that drive your people to perform. †¢When things are performing well, take the time to understand what is working and why. †¢Good coaching is guiding, not telling or doing. †¢Allow the employee to own the problem and its solutions. Ask them: ‘How finally feels as though she is getting somewhere. In terms of monitoring, I would plan more regular catch ups with the staff member (perhaps monthly) to discuss progress. I would continue to implement reviews at the times stipulated by organisational policy. I would also ask for regular feedback from the staff member. 12. How can you provide support services if required? †¢Provide details of union representatives †¢HR representative details †¢Training options †¢Set up future one-to-one meetings †¢Work manuals †¢Ã¢â‚¬Å"buddy† system in which staff member is teed up with competent staff member 13. If the individual continues to perform below expectations what process would be necessary to implement? If the poor performance continues, it may be necessary to give a written warning to the staff member. This is discussed further in question 20. 14. Why is it necessary to document and record performance? Documenting and recording performance can lower the risk if a person chooses to challenge a negative appraisal. Holding records of poor performance may assist to cover an organisation legally if the employee raises an unfair dismissal claim Documenting good performance is also important so as to avoid claims of favouritism for example of undeserving staff members. Documenting performance also makes it much easier when the time for appraisals comes around, particularly for managers who are managing a large number of staff. 15. Explain the term â€Å"interpersonal conflict† Interpersonal conflict is the most apparent form of conflict for workplace participants. It is a disagreement or differing views between two or more people over a particular idea, thought, or action.. Also language and personality styles often clash, which can create conflict in the workplace. ref http://www. mediate. com/articles/donaisB2. cfm 16. How does interpersonal conflict affect the workplace? Interpersonal conflict is is easy enough to observe in the form of office politics, gossip, and rumours. It can lead to a negative work environment, with groups forming within the workplace. Unless these conflicts are resolved, they can lead to a very challenging and unfriendly workplace. In more extreme cases, interpersonal conflict can lead to charges of harassment and discrimination or at least the feeling that such things exist.

Operations Management And Supply Chain Management

Operations Management And Supply Chain Management Introduction. Operations management is a process which primarily deals with the area of the production of goods and services. Operations management takes up the liability of making sure that all business operations are efficient and use as little resource as and when required, and ensures its effective in meeting customer requirements. Operations management deals with managing a system that changes inputs such as materials, labor and energy into outputs such as goods and services. Every service we get all around us whether it be in supermarkets, hospitals, police station, schools, etc all have been manufactured through the different processes of Operational Management. Operations management includes activities such as managing purchases, list control, excellence control, storage space, logistics and evaluations. The core objective is to have a prime focus on competence and the efficiency of the process. Hence, operations management often includes a decent amount of dimension and scrutiny of in-house processes. Operation Managers are the people who are responsible in taking care of the resources which consist of the different operational functions. This is an assignment which goes through a case study on Weldon Hand Tools, Europes one of the most successful hand tool manufacturers, moving into the woodworking tools market. Task 1. Calculation of Number of People need to assemble the Product. YEAR 1. 1ST QUARTER: Sales forecast for no. of units manufactured = 98,000 units. It takes 1.60 standard minutes to assemble and pack one unit. Therefore total time required to assemble and pack 98,000 units = 98,000 X 1.60 = 156800 mins. One year has 52 weeks or 4 quarters, One quarter = 52 / 4 = 13 weeks For the first quarter all new workers for the manufacturing site will have a 2 day training period. This training will include Induction to the Company, Site tour, Risk Assessment, Fire and Safety Hazard Training. Standard holiday pay package for a permanent full time employee can be put as 4 weeks in a year. Hence we can assume all full time employees will have a week off as Holiday every quarter. Amount of time lost for Training and holiday = 2 working days + 1 week = 1.4 weeks. Since one week has 5 working days, 2 working days is 0.4 weeks. Working weeks in 1st Quarter = 13 1.4 = 11.6 Now assuming full time workers working 40 hours (8 hrs shift X 5 working days) per week, Then one worker can cover = 40 hrs X 11.6 Weeks X 60 mins = 27840 mins †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.EQUATION : 1 Therefore no. of workforce required for the manufacturing of 98,000 units = 156,800 / 27,840 = 5.632 = Approximately 6 new workers Hence we can conclude 6 workers working fulltime, i.e. 40 hours each week, for the first quarter will be able to assemble forecasted sale volume. 2ND QUARTER: Sales forecast for no. of units manufactured = 140,000 units. It takes 1.60 standard minutes to assemble and pack one unit. Therefore total time required to assemble and pack 140,000 units = 140,000 X 1.60 = 224,000 mins. Standard holiday pay package for a permanent full time employee can be put as 1 week every quarter. Working weeks in 2nd Quarter = 13 1 = 12 Now assuming full time workers working 40 hours (8 hrs shift X 5 working days) per week, Then one worker can cover = 40 hrs X 12 Weeks X 60 mins = 28800 mins†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..EQUATION : 2 This worktime is for existing employees since they dont need any training. Therefore no. of workforce required for the manufacturing of 140,000 units = 224,000 / 28,800 = 7.78 = Approximately 8 workers Currently we have 6 fulltime workers. There is an increment of about 40% in the no. of units manufactured in the preceding quarter. There are two ways to resolve the shortage of labour. Firstly we can request the existing workers to do overtime and cover the difference. But as we can see the forecast predicts the sale volume going further higher next quarter. Hence the most feasible option would be to hire new workers. From above calculation (EQUATION 1), new workers can cover 27,840 mins per quarter. So two new workers will cover: 27,840 X 2 = 55, 680 mins 6 existing workers will cover = 6 X 28,800 = 172, 800 mins Therefore total work time covered by all workers = 172, 800 + 55, 680 = 228,480 mins. Work time required to manufacture 140, 000 units = 224, 000 mins. Hence we can conclude 6 existing workers and 2 new workers working fulltime, i.e. 40 hours each week, for the second quarter will be able to assemble forecasted sale volume. 3rd QUARTER: Sales forecast for no. of units manufactured = 140,000 units. (From Table 7.3) It takes 1.60 standard minutes to assemble and pack one unit. Therefore total time required to assemble and pack 140,000 units = 140,000 X 1.60 = 224,000 mins. Standard holiday pay package for a permanent full time employee can be put as a week off every quarter. Now assuming full time workers working 40 hours (8 hrs shift X 5 working days) per week, Then one worker can cover = 28800 mins from EQUATION : 2 Therefore no. of existing workforce required for the manufacturing of 140,000 units = 224,000 / 28,800 = 7.78 = Approximately 8 workers Hence we can conclude 8 existing workers working fulltime, i.e. 40 hours each week, for the third quarter will be able to assemble forecasted sale volume. 4th QUARTER: Sales forecast for no. of units manufactured = 170,000 units. It takes 1.60 standard minutes to assemble and pack one unit. Therefore total time required to assemble and pack 170,000 units = 170,000 X 1.60 = 272,000 mins. Standard holiday pay package for a permanent full time employee can be put as a week off every quarter. Now assuming full time workers working 40 hours (8 hrs shift X 5 working days) per week, Then one worker can cover = 28800 mins from EQUATION : 2 Therefore no. of workforce required for the manufacturing of 170,000 units with existing employees = 272,000 / 28,800 = 9.44 workers Currently we have 8 fulltime workers. This is about a shortage of 18% in employee work mins. As said before there are two ways to resolve the shortage of labor. Firstly we can request the existing workers to do overtime and cover the difference or we could hire new workers. Since the sales forecasts suggest that the sale volume may go down next quarter, the more feasible option would be to request the current employees to do overtime. 18% shortage of 40 hours each employee= 7.2 hours Hence we can conclude 8 existing workers working fulltime, i.e. 40 hours each week, and an additional 7 to 10 hours per week have to be requested by employees in an average cover up the shortage and avoid any future redundancy. YEAR 2. 1ST QUARTER: Sales forecast for no. of units manufactured = 140,000 units. It takes 1.60 standard minutes to assemble and pack one unit. Therefore total time required to assemble and pack 140,000 units = 140,000 X 1.60 = 224,000 mins. Standard holiday pay package for a permanent full time employee can be put as a week off every quarter. In the middle of 1st quarter of the second year a two day Kaizen event is held. Kaizen is a daily activity; its purpose is to improve simple productivity. It is a process that, if done correctly, makes the workplace more humanly, removes overly hard work, and teaches everyone how to perform experiments at work using safe scientific methods. It teaches us to spot and eliminate waste in business processes. Kaizen events suggest a humanized approach to workers and to increasing productivity: The main concept was to take care of the companys human resources as much as it is to praise and encourage participation in kaizen activities. Primarily it requires full participation from workers. Now assuming full time workers working 40 hours (8 hrs shift X 5 working days) per week, Then one worker can cover (including two days training)= 27840 mins from EQUATION : 1 Therefore no. of workforce required for the manufacturing of 140,000 units = 224,000 / 27840 = 8.05 = Approximately 8 workers with a little overtime. Hence we can conclude 8 existing workers working fulltime, i.e. 40 hours each week, for the first quarter with a little overtime will be able to assemble forecasted sale volume. 2nd QUARTER: Sales forecast for no. of units manufactured = 170,000 units. (From Table 7.3) It takes 1.60 standard minutes to assemble and pack one unit. Therefore total time required to assemble and pack 170,000 units = 170,000 X 1.60 = 272,000 mins. Standard holiday pay package for a permanent full time employee can be put as a week off every quarter. Now assuming full time workers working 40 hours (8 hrs shift X 5 working days) per week, Then one worker can cover = 28800 mins from EQUATION : 2 Therefore no. of workforce required for the manufacturing of 170,000 units with existing employees = 272,000 / 28,800 = 9.44 workers Currently we have 8 fulltime workers. As said before there are two ways to resolve the shortage of labor. Firstly we can request the existing workers to do overtime and cover the difference or we could hire new workers. In this condition the sales forecasts suggest that the sale volume could only go higher next quarter, hence the more feasible option would be to hire two more employees. From above calculation (EQUATION 1), new workers can cover 27,840 mins per quarter. So two new workers will cover: 27,840 X 2 = 55, 680 mins Therefore total work time covered by all 10 workers = (8 X 28,800) + 55, 680 = 286,080 mins. Work time required to manufacture 170,000 units = 272, 000 mins. Hence we can conclude 8 existing workers and 2 new workers working fulltime, i.e. 40 hours each week, for the second quarter will be able to assemble in surplus forecasted sale volume. 3rd QUARTER: Sales forecast for no. of units manufactured = 200,000 units. It takes 1.60 standard minutes to assemble and pack one unit. Therefore total time required to assemble and pack 200,000 units = 200,000 X 1.60 = 320,000 mins. Standard holiday pay package for a permanent full time employee can be put as a week off every quarter. Now assuming full time workers working 40 hours (8 hrs shift X 5 working days) per week, Then one worker can cover = 28800 mins from EQUATION : 2 In this condition again the sales forecasts suggest that the sale volume is going higher next quarter, hence the more feasible option would be to hire more employees. From above calculation (EQUATION 1), new workers can cover 27,840 mins per quarter. So two new workers will cover: 27,840 X 2 = 55, 680 mins Therefore total work time covered by all 10 workers = (10 X 28,800) + 55, 680 = 343,680 mins. Work time required to manufacture 200,000 units = 320, 000 mins. Hence we can conclude 10 existing workers and 2 new workers working fulltime, i.e. 40 hours each week, for the third quarter will be able to assemble in surplus forecasted sale volume. 4th QUARTER: Sales forecast for no. of units manufactured = 230,000 units. It takes 1.60 standard minutes to assemble and pack one unit. Therefore total time required to assemble and pack 230,000 units = 230,000 X 1.60 = 368,000 mins. Standard holiday pay package for a permanent full time employee can be put as a week off every quarter. Now assuming full time workers working 40 hours (8 hrs shift X 5 working days) per week, Then one worker can cover = 28800 mins from EQUATION : 2 Therefore no. of workforce required for the manufacturing of 170,000 units with existing employees = 368,000 / 28,800 = 12.78 workers Currently we have 12 fulltime workers. This is about a shortage of 6.5% in employee work mins. As said before there are two ways to resolve the shortage of labor. Firstly we can request the existing workers to do overtime and cover the difference or we could hire new workers. Since from the sales forecasts suggest that the sale volume may go down next quarter, i.e. the first quarter of year 3 the more feasible option would be to request the current employees to do overtime. 6.5% shortage of 40 hours each employee= 2.6 hours Hence we can conclude 12 existing workers working fulltime, i.e. 40 hours each week, and an additional 2 to 4 hours each week have to be requested by employees in an average cover up the shortage and avoid any future redundancy. Type of Facilities that the Company need to buy. Managing Facilities is an integral process within an organization that helps maintaining and developing the services which support and improve the effectiveness of its primary exercise.   It comprises of multi-disciplinary exercise within the built environment and taking care of their influence upon people and the workplace. It facilitates to the impartment of strategic and operational objectives. On a microscopic level, effective facilities management provides a safe and efficient business environment, which is important to the realization of any business whatever its size and scope. For Weldon Hand Tools, designing the manufacturing operation and selecting the type of facilities is of primary importance since the sales forecast predicts a high demand. Capacity Planning: The first question which will arise will be considering the size of the facility. Once we have the workforce size of the Operating System, we can start working out the different facilities required to facilitate the effective services which support its primary activities. Facility Location: The geographic site of the workshop has to be selected in such a way that if demand proves higher than forecast, then there will be enough room to expand the workshop. Analyzing location for the advantageous placement of facilities in order to minimize transportation costs, avoid placing hazardous materials near housing, outperform competitors facilities, etc. The company will need to have setup a research on customer requirement in order to be successful and surface the growing demand for the product. Customers nowadays are more demanding; they want better quality at the same price. There could be a rapid change in the composition of customers and their preferences. An ambiguous and changeable economic climate, customer needs constantly evolving, and upcoming technology continually shakes up market turbulence.   Raw materials are one of the major factors of production along with labor and capital. Raw materials are so important to the production process that the success of a companys business and economy can be found by the amount of natural resources the company owns to provide for manufacturing. In this case it would be the pricing for the piece parts used to assemble into the product. An active human resource management with e-recruiting, training and education is also very important since the size of the sales forecast predicts a considerable amount of inflation and deflation. Product promotion, creating new sales channels, internet sales are some of the ways to provide Marketing opportunity to the company. With the increase in sales managing inventory, and having a warehouse could become imperative. All business faces competition. Knowing our competitors can help improve our products, services and marketing. It will enable us to  set our prices competitively and  help to respond to rival marketing and promotional campaigns with our own initiatives. Task 2. Layout of the Assembly Operations. The layout of an operation is the most important within the general area design in operations management. This is because the way facilities are placed in relation to each other has an important effect on so many aspects of operations. Considering all the facilities, machines, equipment, and etc layout is the first thing we notice because it governs the appearance of a company. Layout determines the flow of customers, materials and information within the operation. All these factors affect the total distance travelled by materials, which in turn affect the cost, the general effectiveness and the quality of the operation. The strategic objectives of an operation depend on a layout. There are certain general objectives pertaining to all operations which should be considered while doing a layout. They are: Any process which could pose a danger to the staff or the customers should not be accessible to unauthorized. Measures to be taken to minimize the flow of materials or information. Flow of materials should be well signposted, clear and evident to staff. Any noisy or unpleasant part of an operation should be located away from staff. There should be coordination for the supervision and communication of the location assisted by equipments aiding it. All machines and equipments should be maintained and cleaned properly. Space should be used precisely. The most important factor to consider the layout to be done here is long term flexibility. If the demand keeps going higher based on the sales forecast there should be plenty of room for expansion within the workshop. For Total Work Content: All Time in Standard Minutes (SM) Element A: Assemble poke subassembly 0.12 Element B: Fit poke subassembly to frog 0.10 Element C: Rivet adjusting level to frog 0.15 Element D: Press adjusting nut screw to frog 0.08 Element E: Fit adjusting nut to frog 0.15 Element F: Fit frog screw to frog 0.05 Element G: Fit knob to base 0.15 Element H: Fit handle to base 0.17 Element I: Fit frog subassembly to base 0.15 Element J: Assemble blade subassembly 0.08 Element K: Assemble blade subassembly, clamp and label to base and adjust 0.20 Element L: Make up box and wrap plane, pack and stock 0.20 There are four quarters each year. 52 weeks makes up a year. Hence in each quarter there will be: 52 / 4 = 13 weeks. Now lets assume that a full time employee would work 40 hours per week. Therefore total time put in for one cycle = 13weeks X 40hrs X 60mins = 31,200 mins No. of units for 1st quarter = 98,000 The required cycle time = 31,200 / 98,000 = 0.31837 The required no. of stages = the total work content / the required cycle time 1.60 mins / 0.31837 mins = 5 approximately This means 5 stages. Now looking at the assembly, different tasks could be further differentiated and grouped into different work stations. For example assembling poke assembly does not depend on fitting the knob to the base. All the dependant jobs can be put into same workstation. Hence looking at the different tasks we can group them into five workstations. Lets name them as Workstations 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Workstation 1: Workstation 1 will comprise of all the jobs entailing with the assembling of components of frog subassembly. Element A, B, C, D, E and F. This will include: Assemble poke subassembly Fit poke subassembly to frog Rivet adjusting level to frog Press adjusting nut screw to frog Fit adjusting nut to frog Fit frog screw to frog Workstation 2: Workstation 2 will comprise of all the jobs entailing with the assembling of components of base subassembly. Element G, H and I. This will include: Fit knob to base Fit handle to base Fit frog subassembly to base Workstation 3: Workstation 3 will comprise of all the jobs entailing with the assembling of components of blade subassembly. Element J. This will include: Assemble blade subassembly Workstation 4: Workstation 4 will comprise of all the jobs entailing with the assembling of all the subassemblies. Element K. This will include: Assemble blade subassembly, clamp and label to base and adjust Workstation 5: Workstation 5 will comprise of all the jobs entailing with packaging. Element L. This will include: Make up box and wrap plane, pack and stock. The flowchart above shows the final allocation after breaking down the process into different stages of the long thin arrangement, which is easy to manage. This arrangement makes materials handling simple and the operation becomes a lot more efficient. The layout will need to be adjusted in terms of the design of the products, since this is one of the two main significant factors in deciding on which control values would be useful, the manufacture resources concerning adjustability and capability being the other. The layout proposed is a very simple yet very efficient one. From the layout it could be seen the three sub-assembly workshops are just adjacent to the assembly workshop. Lying just beside the assembly workshop and the packaging workshop is the Inventory. This arrangement would save time from transporting the product back and forth. The Inventory also helps us to keep some of the product in a well maintained stock. Plenty of free space is available around the manufacturing site to enable us to expand our workshops if the demand of our product requires so. The main building with all the different facilties is located just on the other side of the manufacturing site. Previously the effectiveness of a mechanism was exclusivel y measured by the numeral of processed units per hour. A further focus has been put on the quickness and sharpness of the machine. There still exist numerous high proficient machines with low sharpness even though they are time consuming to set up amid the diverse products. However, Weldon Hand Tools may detach the products into standard, whereby it is processed in the old machine, and special. As a result the quantity of special products will be so little that a flexible machine with a comparatively low capacity may be adequate to encounter any competition. Conclusion. In the current market situation companies manufacturing furniture are put through a lot of difficult situation which includes short business cycles, lack of technical knowledge, and delayed returns. The organization itself is very outdated. Hence examining and studying all these issues put together with the high prices of commodities and supplies, state laws, only puts the whole organization into a position where they have work on low income and revenue.

mummies :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When you think of a mummy what comes to mind? Most of us usually picture an Egyptian mummy wrapped in bandages and buried deep inside a pyramid. While the Egyptian ones are the most famous, mummies have been found in many places throughout the world, from Greenland to China to the Andes Mountains of South America. A mummy is the body of a person (or an animal) that has been preserved after death. Normally when we die, bacteria and other germs eat away at the soft tissues (such as skin and muscles) leaving only the bones behind. Since bacteria need water in order to grow, mummification usually happens if the body dries out quickly after death. The body may then be so well preserved that we can even tell how the dead person may have looked in life. Mummies are made naturally or by embalming, which is any process that people use to help preserve a dead body. Mummies can be dried out by extreme cold, by the sun, by smoke, or using chemicals such as natron. Some bodies become mummies because there were favorable natural conditions when they died. Others were preserved and buried with great care. The ancient Egyptians believed that mummifying a person's body after death was essential to ensure a safe passage to the afterlife.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Last updated February 4, 1997 by CHICO WHAT IS A MUMMY Mummification in ancient Egypt was a very long and expensive process. From start to finish, it took about seventy days to embalm a body. Since the Egyptians believed that mummification was essential for passage to the afterlife, people were mummified and buried as well as they could possibly afford. High-ranking officials, priests and other nobles who had served the pharaoh and his queen had fairly elaborate burials. The pharaohs, who were believed to become gods when they died, had the most magnificent burials of all. In the case of a royal or noble burial, the embalmers set up workshops near the tomb of the mummy. The art of Egyptian mummification consisted of many steps. First, the body was washed and ritually purified. The next step was to remove the deceased person's inner organs. A slit was cut into the left side of the body so that the embalmers could remove the intestines, the liver, the stomach and the lungs. Each of these organs was embalmed using natron, which served to dry out the organs and discourage bacteria from decaying the tissues.

hurricanes :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hurricanes are one of the deadliest and most expensive natural disasters around. They are more common in areas of humid yet moist weather so they are very foreign to certain places. But to the places were hurricanes are the norm, the people take them extremely seriously because they kill people and ruin countless amounts of property. Hurricanes can attack and harm people in so many ways they can kill people, leave them homeless, it leaves children orphaned and disable them. On the west coast of the United States and other places hurricanes aren’t taken as seriously as other more common disasters, such as, earthquakes and volcanoes yet the hurricane can be a lot more damaging that both of those. Hurricanes are cyclones that develop over warm oceans and breed winds that blow yup to 74 miles per hour.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the hurricane the mixture of the water and winds can be extremely damaging. The winds are extremely dangerous and usually don’t go faster than about 75 miles per hour but have been documented to go as fast as 85 miles per hour. Due to the fact that hurricanes need water to survive they cannot go too far on land, but that does not stop them from causing billions of dollars in damages. Hurricanes are so dangerous that they were listed number 1 on the Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Hazard and Disasters list. Picture this, you laying on top of you car as you are being violently slung down your street, which was once dry and calm and is now wet and foreign, at an extremely rapid pace. You can’t find your family and all you can do is hope that they haven’t drowned and are able to stay afloat against the violent waters that are angrily attempting to destroy everything in its path. You look around the weather is gray and it’s raining heavily. It is a struggle to breathe between the rapid rain and the violent waters which are attempting to pull you under, forever. Your house no longer exists it is broken down from the pounding waters and fast winds. That is exactly what it would be like if you were in the midst of a hurricane. After hurricanes are over the confusion is crazy, children who had loving families are now orphaned, people become homeless, and people miss certain joys such as walking due to becoming paralyzed.

Jonathan Swift’s A Modest Proposal Essay -- Literary Analysis

A satire uses irony or sarcasm to make a point. Many authors use satire to bring society’s attention to political, social, or economic problems in a somewhat humorous way. Some authors even use satire in an attempt to correct the religious practices of the society. Satire is an effective way to highlight problems because it is non-threatening but it grabs the attention of the reader. Jonathan Swift wrote his satirical essay â€Å"A Modest Proposal† to bring attention to the political, economic, and social problems of Ireland in 1729. For many years, England, and later the United Kingdom, controlled Ireland. This imperialism started when the Irish king lost part of his kingdom in 1169 and asked for help from the Normans, who were French-speaking people who then controlled England. To thank the Normans for their help, the king of Ireland gave his daughter in marriage to Strongbow, the Norman king. Strongbow then became king over Ireland, and the English have controlled Ireland ever since. It was not until the late fifthteenth and early sixteenth centuries that England started to exercise its full control over Ireland. In gaining control over the island, the English â€Å"drove the Irish leaders from Ireland† (Arthurton). During this time a process called â€Å"plantation† was introduced in Ireland. According to the journal â€Å"Experience England,† to plantation was when â€Å"†¦England took land and property from Catholic Irish landowners and gave them to English settlers who were Prot estant.† This forced the Irish men and women to become tenant farmers for the British landowners, making barely enough money to feed their families (Arthurton). When England had a civil war in the 1640s the Irish Catholics took one side. On the other side was the Protest... ....udel.edu/udireland/news/1_23_english_irish.htm> Chowdhury, Ahsan. "Splenetic Ogres and Heroic Cannibals in Jonathan Swift's A Modest Proposal (1729)." English Studies in Canada 34.2/3 (2008): 131-157. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 8 Mar. 2010. Lestringant, Frank. â€Å"Travels in Eucharistia: Formosa and Ireland from George Psalmaanazaar to Jonathan Swift.† Trans. Noah Guynn. Yale French Studies 86(2010) 109-25 Richardson, John. "Swift, A Modest Proposal[/em] and Slavery." Essays in Criticism 51.4 (2001): 404. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 8 Mar. 2010. Swift, Jonathan. "A Modest Proposal for Preventing the Children of Poor People in Ireland From Being a Burden to Their Parents or Country, and or Making Them Beneficial to the Public." The Norton Anthology. Eighth Edition. Ed. Greenblatt, Stephen. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, 2006. 1114-1119.

A Game of Polo with a Headless Goat Essay

Eating disorders are a world-wide problem. There are many types of eating disorders. There are programs out there to help people with eating disorders. With so many types we must understand the differences by looking at each type, how it affects teenagers, and what influence the media has on this issue. Eating disorders come in many different types. One of these is anorexia. Anorexia is a serious disease which causes a severe lack of eating. The proper name is anorexia nervosa.Anorexia nervosa causes people to lose more weight than is considered healthy for their age and height. Persons with this disorder may have an intense fear of weight gain, even when they are underweight. They may diet or exercise too much or use other ways to lose weight. Their self-esteem is usually overly related to body image. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001401/) Anorexia nervosa has many warning signs that can tell someone if they have a problem. Someone may refuse to eat certain foods/food categories and deny their hunger all together. A person may develop â€Å"food rituals† in which they arrange foods in a certain way, excessively chew, eat in a certain order, etc†¦ One may withdraw themselves from their friends, family, or society. They may frequently make a comment about being â€Å"fat† or â€Å"overweight† despite their weight loss. (http://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/anorexia-nervosa) Another type of eating disorder is bulimia nervosa. Bulimia is an illness in which a person binges on food or has regular episodes of overeating and feels a loss of control. The person then uses different methods — such as vomiting or abusing laxatives — to prevent weight gain. Many (but not all) people with bulimia also have anorexia nervosa. The purging of food usually  brings a sense of relief. ( http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001381/) One form of an eating disorder is binge eating. Binge eating is an eating disorder in which a person eats a much larger amount of food in a shorter period of time than he or she normally would. During binge eating, the person also feels a loss of control. Some causes of binge eating include genes, such as having close relatives who also have an eating disorder. Depression or other emotions, such as feeling upset or stressed. Unhealthy dieting, such as not eating enough nutritious food or skipping meals. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0003749/) Some symptoms of binge eating are, eating large amounts of food in a short period, for example, every 2 hours. A person is not able to control overeating, for example is unable to stop eating or control the amount of food. A person may keep eating even when full (gorging) or until uncomfortably full. Sometimes a person feels guilty, disgusted, ashamed, or depressed after eating so much. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0003749/) Some treatment can be done for people with a binge eating problem. The goals are to lessen and then be able to stop the bingeing incidents. Be able to get to and stay at a healthy weight. Get treated for any emotional problems, including overcoming feelings and managing situations that trigger binge eating. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0003749/)

Enzyme Catalase Labs

Varibles that affect Enzyme Catalysis Reaction Rates Introduction Molecules are constantly moving in our bodies and in nature. When molecules move fast enough they collide into one another, allowing chemical reactions to occur. Factors such as temperature and concentrations can either help increase or decrease these reactions. (Jubenville. ) Enzymes are known as catalyst because they are able to speed up reaction rates without being destroyed or altered. They are able to encourage chemical reactions by decreasing the energy of activation.The main function of enzyme catalase is to convert hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in our bodies into oxygen and water. This can be visually seen when hydrogen peroxide is put on a wound and the peroxide bubbles. Enzymes can also be found in plant cells and fungi. (Huston. ) In this experiment we test the many variables that can change the rate of this reaction such as temperature, concentration levels of enzyme catalase and pH values. We are able to track these changes using an O2 Gas Sensor. (Enzymes. ) It is predicted that the rate of reaction will increase with temperature, pH levels and concentration. MethodsThree test tubes were each filled with 5 mL of 3% hydrogen peroxide and 5 mL of water. 10 drops of enzymes suspension was then added to the Naigene chamber for each observation. Test tubes one, two and three were added to the Naigene chamber respectively. The O2 Gas Sensor was placed on top of the Naigene chamber. The Naigene chamber was swirled for 60 seconds while the O2 Gas Sensor recorded the oxygen being released during the reaction. The results were recorded. To study the effects of enzyme concentration on rate of reaction, four test tubes were each filled with 5 mL of 3% hydrogen peroxide and 5 mL of water.For each test observation 5, 10, 15 and 20 drops of enzyme catalase were placed in the Naigene chamber. The four test tubes were then added respectively. The Naigene chamber was swirled for 60 seconds while the O2 Ga s Sensor recorded the oxygen being released during the reaction. To test the effect of temperature on reaction rate, three test tubes were each filled with 5 mL of 3% hydrogen peroxide and 5 mL of water. For each observation 10 drops of enzyme catalase was added to the Naigene chamber. Test tube one was placed in ice (temperature of 0-5 C). Test tube wo was placed in room temperature (20-25 C). Test tube three was placed in warm water (30-35 C). Each test tube was held in this environment for five minutes. The Naigene chamber was swirled for 60 seconds while the O2 Gas Sensor recorded the oxygen being released during the reaction. To measure the effect of pH on catalase activity, three test tubes were each filled with 5 mL of 3% hydrogen peroxide and 5 mL of the appropriate pH buffer. Test tube one was filled with 5 mL of pH 4. Test tube two was filled with 5 mL of pH 7. Test tube three was filled with 5 mL of pH 10.Ten drops of enzyme catalase was added to the Naigene chamber and t est tube one, two and three were added respectively. The O2 Gas Sensor was placed on top of the Naigene chamber and was swirled for 60 seconds. The O2 Gas Sensor then recorded the oxygen being released during the reaction. To measure the effect of different substrare concentrations on catalase reactions, three test tubes were used and labeled one, two and three. Test tube one was filled with 3 mL of 3% hydrogen peroxide and 7 mL of water. Test tube two was filled with 5 mL of 3% hydrogen peroxide and 5 mL of water.Test tube three was filled with 7 mL of 3% hydrogen peroxide and 3 mL of water. 10 drops of catalase suspension was placed in the Naigene bottle for each observation. Test tube one, two and three were then added to the Naigene chamber respectively. The O2 Gas Sensor was placed on top of the Naigene chamber and was swirled for 60 seconds. The O2 Gas Sensor then recorded the oxygen being released during the reaction. Results Figure 1 Test Tube Number| Rate of Initial Reactio n (m)| 1| 0. 085282| 2| 0. 074574| 3| 0. 09223| Figure 1: The average reaction rate of the enzyme concentration.Figure 2 Test Tube| Drops of enzyme suspension| Rate of Initial Reaction (m)| 1| 5| 0. 060459| 2| 10| 0. 071033| 3| 15| 0. 0966| 4| 20| 0. 15003| Figure 2: Changes in reaction rate due to the enzyme concentration. Figure 3 Test Tube| Temperature measured| Rate of Initial Reaction (m)| 1| 0-5 C| 0. 038694| 2| 20-25 C| 0. 084487| 3| 30-35 C| 0. 065194| Figure 3: Changes in reaction rate due to the effects of different temperatures. Figure 4 Test Tube| pH level| Rate of Initial Reaction (m)| 1| 4| 0. 013519| 2| 7| 0. 045141| 3| 10| 0. 049314|Figure 4: Changes in reaction rate due to the pH level of the solution. Figure 5 Test Tube| Amount of H2O2| Amount of H2O| Rate of Initial Reaction (m)| 1| 3| 7| 0. 027672| 2| 5| 5| 0. 09168| 3| 7| 3| 0. 1087| Figure 5: Changes in reaction rate due to different ratios of 3% hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and water (H2O) In figure 1, we can see that the figures for each test were relatively the same. This is because the amount and type of chemicals used in each test were the same. Figure two shows the initial rate of reaction increasing as the amount of enzyme suspension increases.This evidence demonstrates that the enzyme suspension allowed the reaction to occur more rapidly. Figure 3 demonstrates how temperature can play a role in rate of reaction. Our figures show that showed that rate of reaction was at a peak when in medium temperatures. Various levels of pH also played a role in rate of reaction. Figure 4 demonstrates that the higher the pH level, the faster reaction rate was. Figure 5 demonstrates that different ratios of H2O2 and H2O can alter the rate of reaction. The higher amounts of H2O2 allowed higher reaction rates then the lower concentrated amounts.Discussion Enzymes are responsible for almost all chemical reactions that take place. They are made up of proteins and are considered biocatalysts. (Jubenville. ) Biocatalysts can be described as when enzymes are used as catalysts to cause chemical reactions. (Novasep. ) Enzymes are known as catalyst because they are able to speed up reaction rates without being destroyed or altered. They are able to encourage chemical reactions by decreasing the energy of activation. (Huston. ) Enzymes attract substrates to their surface allowing chemical reactions to occur.Every enzyme haves reactive sites which allow very specific chemical reactions. The shape of the reactive site on the enzyme and the shape of the reactive site on the substrate must completely match in order for them to attract to one another. (Jubenville. ) Enzyme catalase can be found in various places of our bodies and nature. The main function of enzyme catalase is to convert hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in our bodies into oxygen and water. This can be visually seen when hydrogen peroxide is put on a wound and the peroxide bubbles. (Huston. ) It can also be found in nature in plants and fungi.These molecules are constantly moving. When moving fast enough they collide into one another, allowing chemical reactions to occur. Factors such as temperature and concentrations can either help decrease or increase these reactions. Concentration of enzyme catalase for example, plays a huge role of how much oxygen will be broken down. Concentrations of enzyme catalase can also increase chances of a chemical reaction occurring because there are more molecules available to do the job. The higher concentration of enzyme catalase used, the more oxygen will be released during reaction.The temperatures of the environment in which these reactions take place also play a crucial role on the reaction. Heat for example, speeds up the movement of molecules allowing more of a chance for them to collide and cause a chemical reaction. (Jubenville. ) pH factors also change reaction rates. pH stands for power of hydrogen and measures the concentration on hydrogen ions in a solution. (Hyperphy sics. ) The higher the concentration, the more hydrogen ions available to be broken down by enzymes. The more hydrogen or hydrogen eroxide in a solution, the more oxygen being released during the reaction. It was expected that reaction rates would increase with higher concentrations of H2O2, pH levels, temperatures and ratios. This was all proven true through our observations of our experiment.Works Cited â€Å"Biocatalysis: Definition of Biocatalysis in Novasep Glossary. † Biocatalysis: Definition of Biocatalysis in Novasep Glossary. Novasep, 2010. Web. 1 Oct. 2012. <http://www. novasep. com/misc/glossary. asp? defId=49>. (Novasep. ) â€Å"Enzymes. † Enzymes. Tuberose, n. d. Web. 27 Sept. 2012. <http://www. uberose. com/Enzymes. html>. (Enzymes. ) â€Å"Frequently Asked Questions A » Learn A » Houston Enzymes. † Frequently Asked Questions A » Learn A » Houston Enzymes. Huston Enzymes, 2010. Web. 1 Oct. 2012. <http://www. houston-enzymes. com/learn/faq. php>. (Huston. ) Jubenville, Robert B. , and Richard G. Thomas. General Biology Laboratory Manual. Third ed. Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt, 2008. Print. (Jubenville. ) â€Å"PH. † As a Measure of Acid and Base Properties. Hyperphysics, n. d. Web. 5 Oct. 2012. <http://hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/hbase/chemical/ph. html>. (Hyperphysics. )

Handloom Sector

The Textile industry occupies a unique place in our country. One of the earliest to come into existence in India, it accounts for 14% of the total Industrial production, contributes to nearly 30% of the total exports and is the second largest employment generator after agriculture. Today, India's textile sector comprises four important segments: †¢Modern textile mills †¢Independent Power looms †¢Handlooms and †¢Garments ROLE OF HANDLOOM SECTOR:The Handloom sector plays a very important role in the country’s economy. It is one of the largest economic activities providing direct employment to over 65 lakhs persons engaged in weaving and allied activities. As a result of effective Government intervention through financial assistance and implementation of various developmental and welfare schemes, this sector has been able to withstand competition from the power loom and mill sectors.This sector contributes nearly 19% of the total cloth produced in the country and also adds substantially to export earnings. Handloom is unparalleled in its flexibility and versatility, permitting experimentation and encouraging innovations. The strength of Handloom lies in the introducing innovative designs, which cannot be replicated by the Power loom sector. Thus, Handloom forms a part of the heritage of India and exemplifies the richness and diversity of our country and the artistry of the weavers.The Office of the Development Commissioner for Handlooms has been implementing, since its inception in the year 1976, various schemes for the promotion and development of the handloom sector and providing assistance to the handloom weavers in a variety of ways. Some of the major programmes relate to: †¢Modernisation and Up gradation of Technology †¢Input Support †¢Marketing Support †¢Publicity †¢Infrastructural Support †¢Welfare Measures †¢Composite Growth Oriented Package †¢Development of Exportable Products †¢Resea rch ; DevelopmentThe various schemes implemented by the Office of Development Commissioner for Handlooms address the needs of weavers who constitute the disadvantaged social strata and occupational groups, which are at the bottom of the economic hierarchy. Concerted efforts are being made through the schemes and programmes to enhance production, productivity, and efficiency of the handloom sector and enhance the income and socio-economic status of the weavers by upgrading their skills and providing infrastructural support and essential inputs.

Anatomy of the Neck

Lecture 3. Surgical anatomy of neck Contents of lecture Scopes of neck. Division of neck on a region. Fascias and cellulose spases of neck. Topography of vascular-nervous formations of neck. Topography of organs of neck. Topographycal-anatomic ground of operative interferences in area of neck. Cuts in area of neck. Treatment of neck’s wounds. Operations at inflammatory processes. Operation on muscles, vessels and nerves. Tracheostomy. Operations on a thyroid. Plan of lecture. 1. Scopes of neck, division on a region. 2.Triangles of neck. 3. Fasciae of neck. 4. Cellulose spaces of neck. 5. Submandibulare triangle. 6. The Pyrogov’s Triangle. 7. Carotid triangle. 8. Topography of basic vascular-nervous bunch of neck. 9. Distinctions between external and internal carotids. 10. Branches of external carotid in a carotid triangle. 11. Topography of trachea. 12. Topography of neck part of pharynx. 13. Branches of neck interlacement. 14. Scopes of lateral triangle of neck, divisi on of it on scapula-trapezoidal and scapular-clavicles triangles. 5. Layers of lateral triangle of neck. 16. Cellulose spaces of lateral triangle of neck. 17. Topography of neck part of diaphragmatic nerve. 18. Technique of tracheostomy. 19. Errors and complications at tracheostomy. 20. Features of operative access to neck part of esophagus. 21. Operations on a thyroid. ANATOMICAL-TOPOGRAPHICAL FEATURES OF NECK AND THEIRS ORGANS Topographical anatomy of neck (common data) The region of neck differs by the difficult anatomic structure.Any doctor needs knowledge of topographical   anatomy of neck, as this region has a row vitally important formations, interrelation between which must be taken into account at implementation of row of urgent measures (laryngotomy, tracheostomy, stop of bleeding and other). The practical value is had: 1) The outward reference points of region, which use at the inspection of patient for: a) Drafting of projection lines; b) Determinations of location of organs of neck 2) Bulges of sterno-cleido-mastoid muscles which are a reference point for finding of general carotid.Palpation of region is more informing: a) On the middle of the skinning fold exposed at bending of head, the body of sublingual bone palpate under a lower maxilla, on each side from it it’s large Horn. A sublingual bone is a reference point at implementation of vagosympathetic blockage; b) Below the plates of thyroid cartilage, place of their connection, palpate to the sublingual bone (Adam's apple); c) In the middle of front surface of thyroid cartilage is mapped a glottis. d) A cricoids cartilage is felt directly ahead from thyroid.Deepening which corresponds to the thyroidocricoid copula palpate between them. Urgent laryngotomy is executed in this area; e) On the line conducted from the lower edge of cricoids cartilage downward to the jugular undercuting of breastbone, is mapped a trachea, a few left from it is mapped a esophagus; f) At the cutting edge of s terno-cleido-mastoid muscle according to the level of cricoids cartilage the transversal process of sixth neck vertebra palpate at back of region (carotid tubercle, tuberculum caroticum).Against this tubercle a general carotid is pinned at bleeding from its branches; g) At the level of upper edge of thyroid cartilage, is mapped the place of bifurcation general carotid; h) In the corner formed by the back edge of sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle and collar-bone, the pulsation of subclavian artery is determined. Here it cuddles to the first rib for the temporal stop of bleeding; i) It is mapped humeral interlacement on a neck on a line, connecting a point lying on the border of middle and lower third of sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle and middle of collar-bone.On 1,5-2 sm higher than middle collar-bones execute anesthesia of humeral interlacement; j) It is mapped a diaphragmatic nerve on the line of the width of sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle conducted on a middle downward from the level of mi ddle of thyroid cartilage; k) it is mapped an additional nerve on a line crossing a sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle in direction from the corner of lower maxilla to the border between the middle and lower its third; 3) On the middle of back edge of this muscle the skinning branches of neck interlacement go out in hypodermic cellulose (n. . transversus coli, occipitalis minor, auricularis magnus, cutaneus colli, supraclavicularis). The explorer Novocain anesthesia conducted in this area allows to get anaesthetizing of front and lateral surface of neck.At palpation of neck at patient’s megascopic lymphatic knots come to light sometimes: a) It is often multiplied submandibular lymphatic knots at tooth decay; b) Chin knots are struck by metastases at the cancer of front department of tongue and lower lip; c) It is multiplied supraclavicular lymphatic knots in connection with metastasis at the cancer of mammary gland; their increase is marked also at tubercular lymphadenitis. d) Very often at the cancer of esophagus and stomach one of the lymphatic knots located on meatus of a. ransversa colli is struck is the Trauz'e-Vyrkhov knot. Neck delimited from a head a lower edge and corner of lower maxilla, outward acostic duct, mastoid process, upper occipital line to the cervical hillock is a high bound. From below from a breast, upper extremity and back, a neck is delimited by a line, going on the jugular undercutting of breastbone, upper edge of collar-bone, acromion scapulars and, further in a conditional line connecting the acromion by prominence process of the VII neck vertebra (vertebra prominens). Children have is short and wide neck, a lot of cellulose.A narrow glottis, wide isthmus of thyroid, narrow sublaryngeal space, is marked. It determines the methods of some operative interference. For example, children lower tracheotomy is done only, taking into account the features of structure of isthmus of thyroid and sublaryngeal space. In addition, children have the organs of neck on one neck vertebra higher, than at adults, that it is necessary to take into account at implementation of operative accesses. A neck de bene esse is divided by the row of regions, the scopes of which pass on the outward reference points of neck.By a frontal plane passing through a mastoid process and acromion neck divide by front and back departments. A back department carries the name of cervical (occipital) region – regio nuche – and consists of the well developed muscles covering vertebrae. These muscles in the turn are covered by strap and trapezoid muscles. Topographoanatomical under a neck understand its front department usually, actually neck, containing its organs, basic vessels and nerves. By a middle line divide the front department of neck by right and left halves.On each of them two large triangles are distinguished: mesial and lateral. Mesial triangle Mesial triangle – trigonum colli medium limited by the lower edge of lower max illa from above, sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle (by its cutting edge) – lateral by a middle lily mesial. Within the limits of internal neck triangle pair and odd triangles are selected: Pair: Submandibular – trigonum submandibulare is limited from above by the lower edge of lower maxilla, from below, lateral and mesial – both bellies of digastrics muscle.This triangle must be known for access to the submandibular salivary gland, to the facial, tongue arteries and veins (a. et v. facialis), to the sensible nerve of tongue (n. lingualis) to the sublingual (n. hypoglossus) motive nerve of tongue; Carotid triangle – trigonum caroticum is limited from above by the back belly of digastrics muscle, behind (or lateral) by the cutting edge of sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle, from below by the top belly of scapular-sublingual muscle (m. omohyoideus).This triangle it is necessary to know for access to the vascular-nervous bunch consisting of: general carotid (a. carotica communis) and its branches (outward and internal), to the internal jugular vein (v. juugularis interna) and wandering nerve (n. vagus). Scapular-tracheal triangle – trigonum omotracheale, limited from above and lateral by the top belly of scapular-sublingual muscle (m. omohyoideus), from below and lateral is cutting edge of sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle, at the front or mesial – middle line of neck.Needed for accesses to tracheas at implementation of tracheotomy and operation on a thyroid. Odd: Chin – trigonum submentale – limited from below by a sublingual bone, lateral and mesial – front bellies of digastrics muscles. Knowledge of it is needed for drainage of bottom of cavity of mouth. Outward triangle – trigonum colli laterale – limited from below by the upper edge of collar-bone, at the front or mesial – back edge of sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle, back or lateral border – on the cutting edge of trapezoid muscle.Within the limits of this triangle two pair triangles are selected: Scapular-trapezoid – trigonum omotrapezoideum – limited behind by the cutting edge of trapezoid muscle, at the front – back edge of sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle, from below – scapular-sublingual muscle. Needed for dissection of abscesses, access to the additional nerve (n. accesorius); Scapular-clavicular triangle – trigonum omoclavicularis – limited from below by a collar-bone, from above – bottom belly of pharyngeal-sublingual muscle, at the front – back edge of sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle; needed for access to the subclavian artery, vein and humeral interlacement.If to put together both internal neck triangles (right and left), they form one large middle quadrant of neck, which is divided by a horizontal line passing through a sublingual bone, on two regions: Suprasublingual region (regio suprahyoidea) – in it select a chin and two submandibular triangles; Subsublingual region (regio infrahyoidea) – in it select two carotid and two scapular-tracheal triangles. FASCIAE OF NECK Fasciae is a connective tissue frame and, being in all regions, various functions are executed: protective, supporting, fixing regarding to organs.V. N. Shevkunenko described 5 fascial sheets of neck: First (superficial) fasciae of neck – fascia superficialis colli – or fascia cervicalis superficialis. It is disposed deeper than hypodermic cellulose, is passed from a neck directly to the neighboring regions. Superficial fasciae of neck, dividing, engulf the hypodermic muscle of neck of m. platysma, forming its vagina; Second is superficial sheet of own fasciae of neck – lamina superficialis fasciae colli propriae (fascia cervicalis superficialis).This, fasciae begins from the copulas of processus spinosus of neck vertebrae. It is fixed to the upper occipital line, is divided, goes round all neck and forms a vagina for m. trapezius, m. sternocleidomastoideus and capsule by submandibular saliva of gland. The outward sheet of II fasciae of neck gives into the covered muscles the row of bridges which divide muscle into separate bunches. Down second fasciae of neck registers to the front-upper edges of handle of breastbone and collar-bones, from above – to the lower edge of lower maxilla.II fasciae of neck give offspurs to the transversal processes of neck vertebrae. One of these offspurs binds second fasciae to the heel. Other – binds it to the vagina of vascular-nervous bunch of neck. These offspurs form the frontal located plate which separates the front region of neck from back one. It confirms the conditional division of neck on front and back departments. This plate hinders to spreading of festering processes arising up in the intrafascial cellulose of front and back departments of neck.On face second fasciae of neck passes in fascia parotideomasseterica, this forms the capsule of parotid salivary gland and covers a masticatory muscle outside; The third fascial sheet of neck carries the name of scapular-clavicular fasciae (fascia omoclavicularis) or deep sheet of own fasciae of neck of lamina profunda fasciae colli propriae. This fascia has the form of trapezoid and registers above to the body of sublingual bone. From one side it is limited by scapular-sublingual muscles (m. omohyoideus). Down it registers to the back-upper edges of collar-bones and handle of breastbone.On middle line third fasciae of neck accretes in upper departments with III fascia, and forms the white line of neck. It forms vaginas for pair muscles lying below than sublingual bone: m. sternohyoideus, m. omohyoideus, m. thyrohyoideus. In connection with the features of the topography third fasciae of neck is instrumental in adjusting of blood stream in the vessels of neck. It is explained it by the presence of dense connections of fasciae with the wall of vessels, in the places of perforation by them this fascial sheet. At reduction m. mohyoideus fasciae, narrowing, multiplies the diameter of veins. A fourth fascial sheet carries the name of intraneck fasciae – fascia endocervicalis. It consists of two plates: parietal, covering a cavity neck from within, and visceral, covering organs neck. The parietal plate of fourth fasciae forms a vagina for the basic vascular-nervous bunch of neck of vagina vasonervosa, giving his partition, dissociating the vascular components of this bunch from each other – general carotid, internal jugular vein and n. vagus, inward (wandering nerve).On meatus of vessels a fascial sheet goes down in top mediastinum, gives the bunches of fascial fibres to the large vessels and pericardium. The visceral plate of fourth fasciae of neck passes to the organs of neck, covering a larynx, trachea, esophagus, and thyroid. To the large veins of neck fourth fasciae also gives the row of offspurs. Therefore in the moment of inhalation negative pressure in v eins is created, that can lead at the wounds of neck to air embolism. The fifth fascial sheet of neck carries the name of pre-vertebral fasciae of fascia prevertebralis.It begins behind a esophagus at foundation of skull, goes down downward in a pectoral cavity, passing ahead of spine. The Fascial sheet is well expressed and registering to the transversal processes of vertebrae, forms vaginas for the stair muscles of neck of m. scalenus anterior, medius et posterior. Its processes cover a subclavian artery, humeral nervous interlacement and m. scalenius anterior. It covers by itself the trunk of sympathetic nerve and muscle, lying on bodies and transversal processes of neck vertebrae (mm. ongus coli et longus capitis). CELLULOSE SPACES OF NECK The reserved and reported cellulose spaces appear between the fascial sheets of neck. Reserved: Pair sack of submandibular gland – soda gl. submandibularis, containing a submandibular salivary gland, loose cellulose, lymphatic knots, fa cial artery and vein, n. hypoglossus. This sack is limited by the sheets of second fasciae and periosteum of lower maxilla; Pair fascial sack – spatium sternocleidomastoideum – formed by the sheets of second fasciae for a sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle and n. ccesorius. This fascial space is practically reported with surrounding tissues only through the probutting openings, formed by vessels which blood supply muscle; Substernoid intraaponeurosis space – spatium intraponeuroticum suprasternale – it is located above the jugular undercutting of breastbone between the sheets of second and third fasciae of neck. Height of this space – from the jugular undercutting of breastbone to the middle of distance between a breastbone and sublingual bone. Space is opened from sides.Except for loose cellulose this space contains lymphatic knots and jugular vein arc of arcus venosus juguli; A blind sack a pair behind the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle of sacus caecus r elrosternodeidomastoideus, Gruber is described. The scopes of it are: at the front is back wall of vagina of m. sternodeidomastoideus (II fasciae), behind are third fasciae of neck, and from below is periosteum of upper back edge of collar-bone. A sack is reserved outside, as at the outward edge of sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle second fasciae accrete with the third.This space has the report of spatium intraponeuroticum suprasternale by means of crack between II and III fasciae, carrying the name of gate of fifth space (portae spatium suprasternale). Pus in these regions causes the symptom of â€Å"festering collar†. Reported (unreserved) spaces cooperant to spreading of haematomas and inflammatory processes: Space ahead of internal organs of neck or pre-organ – spatium previscerale – between the sheets of fourth fasciae, spreading from a sublingual bone to undercutting of breastbone. Part of this space is below than isthmus of thyroid and ahead of trachea select as spatium pretracheale.In this space lymphatic knots, veins taking a blood from the region of isthmus of thyroid, are disposed in a loose cellulose, v. thyroidea ima, part of odd thyroid interlacement of plexus thyroideus. In 10-12% of cases lower thyroid artery of a. thyroidea ima. This cellulose space is delimited from the cellulose of front mediastinum by only a fascial bridge appearing at level handles of breastbone in transition of parietal sheet of fourth fasciae in visceral one; therefore the festering processes of cellulose of this space can spread in front mediastinum.Space behind the entrails of neck or retrovisceral – spatium retroviscerale – is disposed between fourth and fifth fasciae behind a esophagus. This space has the report directly with the cellulose of back mediastinum and spreads from foundation of skull to the diaphragm. Major anatomic formations are disposed in the back department of juxtapharyngeal cellulose: internal carotid, internal jugular vein, wandering, sublingual and glossopharyngeal nerves (nn. vagus, hypoglossus, glossopharingeus). Along the vascular-nervous bunch of internal neck triangle from every side vascular-nervous cellulose space is disposed – spatium vasoneurorum.Above it reaches before foundation skulls, and down passes to front mediastinum. Cellulose space of outward neck triangle is disposed between second and fifth fasciae. From sides this space is limited by the vagina of basic vascular-nervous bunch of neck and edge of trapezoid muscle. It is reported with subtrapezoid space. Deep cellulose space of neck is disposed under fifth fascia in trigonum colli laterale surrounds subclavian vessels and humeral interlacement and is reported with the cellulose of armpit cavity.Pre-vertebral space – spatium prevertebrale, is disposed between neck vertebrae fifth fascia. From above comes to outward foundation of skull, from below – to the level of the third pectoral vertebra. The long mus cles of neck of mm. longus colli ei longus capitis and trunk of sympathetic nerve are located in it, n. phrenicus from neck interlacement, vertebral arteries of m. rectus capitis anterior et lateralis. It is reported with cellulose to the level of the III pectoral vertebra. SUPRASUBLINGUAL REGION (Regio suprahyoidea)From above the edge of lower maxilla and it connecting line with a mastoid process are the scopes of suprasublingual region, from below is the line conducted through a body and large horns of sublingual bone, from one side are the cutting edges mm. sternocleidomastoidei. Three expressed triangles are selected in a region: Odd chin – between the front bellies of digastrics muscles and body of sublingual bone; Pair submandibular triangle – trigonum submandibulare, the sides of which there are two bellies of m. digastricus and lower edge of lower maxilla.A submandibular salivary gland beds in the area of this triangle. The skin of region is thin, mobile, elast ic, the expressed of hypodermic cellulose is subject to the individual changes. Superficial fasciae form a vagina for m. platisma. In the area of this triangle after Between sheets I and II fasciae of neck under the lower edge of lower maxilla is disposed usually a few lymphatic knots. Ramus colli n passes here. facialis, and also skinning nerves of neck (branches of n. transversus colli), which are disposed in a hypodermic cellulose.II fasciae of neck form a sack for a submandibular salivary gland. The last usually has an egg-shaped form and executes all submandibular triangle almost. Between a gland and its capsule loose cellulose is disposed, in which lymphatic knots lie often. On meatus of channel of gland, this cellulose is reported with the cellulose of bottom of oral cavity. The conclusion channel of gland of ductus submandibularis begins in the front-upper department of gland and goes away to the crack between m. myohyoidem and m. hyoglossus, following under the mucous membr ane of bottom of oral cavity.In the same crack a few higher than channel passes the tongue nerve of n. lingualis, n. hypoglossus and v. lingualis is below than channel disposed. A facial artery which adjoins to the internal surface of gland passes in the lodge of submandibular salivary gland. To outward its surface there is a adjoins of the same name vein which, bent through the edge of lower maxilla, follows under the capsule of gland towards v. jugularis interna the cutting edge m. masseter. Abandoning the bed of gland, a. facialis is bent through the edge of lower maxilla and is passed in the mesial departments of face.A deep department is formed by a few muscles covered by second fascia of neck. Most mesial the mandibular-sublingual muscle m. myohyoideus is disposed. This muscle, accreting on a mesial edge from the same muscle opposite side, forms the diaphragm of oral cavity – diaphragma oris. At osteomyelitis of lower maxilla, stomatological inflammatory processes, mayb e, as complication, to arise up phlegmon of bottom of cavity of mouth. It carries the name of Ludwig’s quinsy. It is a quickly making progress sharp inflammatory process, spreading on a tongue, larynx, and cellulose of neck.The last necrose and adopts a black almost. There are salivation, labored breathings, fetid smell of mouth. Quite often the Ludwig’s quinsy is complicated by development of mediastinitis. Topographically in this region the Pirogov's triangle, limited by the tendon bridge of m. digastricus, back edge m. mylohyoideus and n. hypoglossus, is important formation. M. hyoglossus is the bottom of triangle. Within the limits of this triangle, baring and bandaging of tongue artery which is disposed under m. hyoglossus is possible. A tongue vein lies above it muscle.Search for the Pirogov’s Triangle at thrown back backwards and the head turned in the side opposed to interference. The following layers are selected in an odd chin triangle: skin, hypodermi c cellulose, first and second fasciae of neck. Muscles are then disposed outside in inward: m. digastricus, m. myohyoideus, m. geniohyoideus, m. genioglossi. Deeper than these muscles a cellulose follows and mucous to the oral cavity. SUBSUBLINGUAL REGION (Regio infrahyoidea) A sublingual region is limited from above by a line passing on the upper edge of body and large horns of sublingual bone, from a lateral side – cutting edges of mm. ternocleidomastoidei, from below – undercuts of breastbone. After hypodermic cellulose I fasciae of neck with m. platysma is disposed. Between I and II fasciae of neck plural superficial veins (including v. jugularis anterior, v. mediana colli), and also nerves of neck, from n. cutaneus colli are disposed. Deeper III fasciae of neck, formative a vagina for muscles lying below than sublingual bone, are disposed: sterno-sublingual (m. sternohyoideus), scapular-sublingual (m. omohyoideus) – lying it is more superficial, sterno-thyr oid (m. ternothyroideus) and thyroid-sublingual (m. thyrohyoideus) – bedding deeper. Under muscles the parietal sheet of IV fasciae follows and described higher spatium previscerale. It contains vein interlacement – plexus thyroideus impar, v. thyroidea ima, sometimes (of to 10% cases) ?. thyroidea ima. In a sublingual region are disposed larynx, esophagus, trachea, esophagus, and thyroid. Within the limits of sublingual region the extraordinarily important carotid triangle of neck is disposed (trigonum caroticum).The scopes of triangle make the muscles of neck: mesial is top belly of scapular-sublingual muscle (m. omohyoideus), lateral is sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle, above is back belly of digastrics muscle. The superficial layers of triangle are represented by a skin, hypodermic cellulose, and first fascia of neck with m. platisma, by second fascia of neck. Deeper, the loose cellulose, surrounded by a parietal sheet IV fasciae of neck, its basic vascular-nervous bun ch and also lymphatic knots, on meatus of his vessels beds within the limits of carotid triangle.A basic vascular-nervous bunch is represented by an internal jugular vein (v. jugularis interna) and general carotid (a. carotis communis), which a wandering nerve is disposed between. Vienna with its influxes lies most superficially, and a. carotis communis is most deep. V. jugularis interna is well visible at drawing off of the internal (front) edge m. sternocleidomastoideus. At the level of upper edge of thyroid cartilage a facial vein (v. facialis) which adopts a blood from the row of vein vessels falls in it (v. lingualis, v. laryngea superior, v. hyroidea superior). A. carotis communis passes on the bisector of the corner formed by the top belly of scapular-sublingual muscle and sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle. The division of a. carotis communis on outward and internal carotids more frequent takes place at the level of upper edge of thyroid cartilage. To distinguish outward and inter nal carotids there is the row of topographoanatomical signs: An internal carotid, as a rule, on the neck of branches does not give. An outward carotid gives on a neck the row of branches in the following order: a. hyroidea superior, a. lingualis, a. facialis and other Topographically a. carotis externa departs ahead, mesial and lies more superficially, than a. carotis interna, which departs in a lateral side and leaves deep into. If in area of carotid triangle bare and n. hypoglossus is visible, he crosses a. carotis interna and lies on it. An outward carotid is closed a. temporalis superficialis, and therefore if pined an outward carotid, a pulsation on a temporal artery will not be present. In area of bifurcation general carotid is disposed a  «carotid reflexogenic area†.It consists of: glomus caroticum, sinus caroticus (initial area of internal carotid), branches n. glossopharyngeus, n. vagus, and truncus sympathicus. Carotid glomus – glomus caroticum – cons ists of connecting tissue specific â€Å"glomus cages† stopped up in it, closely associated from an adventitia carotid. Middle sizes of glomus caroticum: 3Ãâ€"5 mm. Reflexes of carotid area act part in adjusting of bloody pressure and chemical composition of blood. LYMPHATIC KNOTS OF NECK Five groups of neck lymphatic knots are distinguished: Submandibular. Chin.Front neck (superficial and deep). Lateral neck (superficial). Deep neck. Submandibular knots – nodi lymphatici submandibularis in an amount 4-6 is disposed in the fascial lodge of submandibular and in the layer of salivary gland. They collect lymph from soft tissues of front region of face. Chin knots – nodi lymphatici submentalis in an amount 2-3 lie under second fascia, between the front bellies of digastrics muscles, lower maxilla and sublingual bone. They collect lymph from a chin, tag of tongue, lower teeth and lips. Front neck knots – nodi lymphatici colli anterior.Necks in a sublingual re gion are disposed in a middle department. Lymph is taken from the organs of neck. Distinguish: Superficial, located on meatus of front jugular vein; Deep or juxtavisceral are the necks located near-by organs. Lateral group – forms a few superficial knots of disposed on meatus of outward jugular vein. Deep knots lie as three chainlets, forming the figure of triangle: †¢ Along an internal jugular vein. †¢ On meatus of additional nerve. †¢ On meatus of transversal artery of neck. A chain along the transversal artery of neck is named a subclavian group.The large knot of this group, the nearest to the left vein corner (the Truaz'e-Vyrkhov's knot), quite often is struck to one of the first at new formations of stomach and lower department of esophagus. He palpate in a corner between left sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle and collar-bone. Deep neck knots – heads and necks adopt lymph from all knots. They lie at the level of bifurcation general carotid. A knot dispos ed in a corner between v. jugularis interna et v. facialis (at the level of Horn of sublingual bone) is struck by one of organs of oral cavity first at new formations.Operations in area of neck At production of operations on a neck it is necessary to take into account the individual forms of changeability of neck, mobility of neck organs, large danger of damage of vessels of neck, which threatens by not only the bleeding but also possibility of embolism (at the damage of veins). At treatment of wounds it is necessary at once to take the damaged veins by styptic clamps and bandage them. During operative interferences vessels in the beginning are taken by styptic clamps, after dissected and bandaged. Position of patient at operations in area of neckIn all cases of operative interferences in front and lateral departments of neck of patient lies on back. Under scapulars a roller is underlaid, a head is thrown backwards. At cuts in the middle departments of neck the head of patient is re tained on a middle line. At operative interferences in the lateral departments of neck a head is turned aside, opposite to operative interference, because of what organs will be mixed up and become more accessible. Cuts on a neck Cuts on a neck must answer the cosmetic requirements and provide sufficient access to the organs of neck.Transverse sections conform to such requirements, because conduct them parallel to the natural folds of skin. At operations on a thyroid such cuts correspond to the long axis of organ and give wide access to it. In cases of baring of vascular-nervous formations, neck department of esophagus, dissection of abscesses and phlegmons on a neck produce longitudinal and combined cuts (Venglovsky, D'yakonov, De Kerven). Only changed, but also those healthy organs, the wound of which follows to avoid at operations.The following basic groups of surgical accesses are distinguished to the organs of neck: 1- vertical; 2- slanting; 3- transversal and 4- combined. Vert ical cuts (upper and lower) are conducted on a middle line at the front or behind. They are widely used for tracheostomy (upper or lower) back middle cuts are used as operative accesses to the bodies of neck vertebrae (to the spinal cord). Slanting cuts are conducted on the cutting or back edge of sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle. Such accesses are used for baring or bandaging of elements of basic vessel-nervous bunch and neck part of esophagus.In addition, slanting cuts take advantage that are most safe and provide deep enough access. Transverse sections are used for access to the thyroid, esophagus vertebral, subclavian, lower thyroid to the arteries, for the delete of the lymphatic knots staggered by the metastases of cancer progression. However much transverse sections have the row of failings: badly accretes transversal the cut hypodermic muscle of neck that results in formation of wide and rough scars; in addition is present possibility of wound of muscles, vessels and nerves duri ng operation.Besides availability to the deeply located organs goes down considerably. The combined cuts (patchwork) are used for wide dissection of cellulose spaces, delete of tumor, metastatic staggered lymphatic knots. Surgical treatment of wounds of neck The wounds of neck are characterized by four basic signs. The first sign is sinuosity of wound channel. It is explained it mobility organs of neck from the presence of the developed fascial-cellulose spaces in area of neck. Second sign are the wounds of neck are often accompanied by the wound of spine and spinal cord.Wounds on a neck are especially dangerous, inflicted on sagittal or parasagittal lines. Third sign are the wounds of neck in 13% of cases are accompanied by the wound of carotids. This, usually, heavy wounds which often end with death. Bandaging of general and internal carotids can be complicated by a one-sided central paralysis (hemiplegia). Fourth sign are wounds of neck are characterized by muddiness. At the woun d of larynx, trachea, special esophagus, there is an infection with subsequent development of phlegmons and abscesses. Sometimes festering processes are complicated by mediastinitis.Three areas of wounds of neck are distinguished: first area – from the lower edge of lower maxilla to the sublingual bone; second area – from a sublingual bone to the cricoid’s cartilage; third area – from a cricoid’s cartilage to the jugular undercuting of breastbone. Than the area of wound is below, that it is more dangerous, because interfascial cellulose spaces are unsealed. The large vessels of neck, included in top front mediastinum and going out on it, pass in the lower departments of neck. The wound of them is dangerous from the massive bleeding and difficult access to the site of damage.At primary surgical treatment a wound channel is extended. The nonviable areas of soft tissues are excised, foreign bodies, interfascial haematomas, are deleted, the damaged int erfascial spaces are extended. Surgeons do not unseal the interfascial cracks not unsealed by a scotching object. Wounds must be widely drainage. Foreign bodies are deleted only in case that they threaten to life of patient. Foreign bodies are deleted, if they cause serious complications (for example, located near a wandering nerve and is caused violations of cardiac activity).Foreign bodies in such cases must be remote at the well opened wound under the control an eye. If a splinter is located deeply in tissues and is not caused complications, he is not usually touched. He is encapsulated and is remained in tissues. Nick the encapsulated splinter will be mixed up, approaching large vessels, he is necessary to be deleted. Operations at phlegmons and abscesses of neck Phlegmons and abscesses in area of neck to the bowl are complications of lymphadenitis, when loose cellulose surrounding lymphatic knots is engaged in a process.Besides the difficult clinical picture of flow of disease, the festering hearths of deep cellulose spaces are dangerous to those that can on these spaces spread in neighboring regions. So, from previsceral and vascular-nervous cellulose spaces – in front mediastinum; from retrovisceral cellulose there is space – in back mediastinum, being the reason of festering mediastinitis. The juxtavisceral phlegmons can cause squeezing and edema of organs of neck, large vessels and nerves. The lately recognized inflammatory processes sometimes result in melting of wall of vessels and considerable bleeding.A cut is elected for the shortest access to the abscess. Taking into account complication of topographoanatomical location of large vascular-nervous formations, cuts on a neck are produced strictly layer. Unsealing a skin, hypodermic fatty cellulose and superficial fasciae by dull instruments, not to scotch vessels, impenetrate. At accesses the location of veins of neck, their intimate union, is taken into account with fasciae, the dama ge of the large veins close located from the upper aperture of breast is dangerous by not only the difficultly stopped bleeding but also air embolism.The wide opening of festering hearth is concluded by drainages of its cavity. Drainages are put possibly farther from the place of location of large vessels in the lower corner of wound. Thus on a skin there are sutures to drainage. The Festering processes of submandibular region are unsealed by a cut going parallel to the edge of lower maxilla, from last 1 – 1,5 sm (danger of damage of regional branch of facial nerve). After the section by the scalpel of skin, hypodermic cellulose, fasciae together with m. latysma deep into penetrates by a dull way, fearing the wound of facial artery and vein. Phlegmons and abscesses of bottom of oral cavity are unsealed by a longitudinal cut on a middle line below than chin. Come a sharp way to the gnathic-sublingual muscle (m. mylohyoideus). Pass the last through its stitch by a dull instrume nt, widely exposing a festering hearth. The phlegmons of fascial vagina of vascular-nervous bunch are unsealed by a cut along the cutting edge of sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle. Layer skiving, a hypodermic cellulose, and superficial fasciae, together with m. latysma is unsealed by the vagina of sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle and fascial vagina of vascular-nervous bunch. By a dull instrument penetrate to the vascular-nervous bunch. In cellulose surrounding a vascular-nervous bunch, drainage is put. At spreading of pus in the lateral triangle of neck unseal a phlegmon by a cut De Kerven. He is conducted on the front edge of m. sternocleidomastoideus, and then, crossing this muscle, parallel to the collar-bone and higher it on 2-3 sm to the cutting edge m. trapezius. Wound of drainage.The phlegmons of previsceral space are unsealed by a transverse section, dissecting a skin, hypodermic cellulose, superficial, second and third fasciae of neck, long muscles covering larynx and trachea, parie tal sheet of IV fasciae of neck. A cut is conducted on 3-4 sm higher than jugular undercuts. Spatium previscerale drainage is wide. The Festering processes of retrovisceral space are represented by retropharyngeal phlegmons and abscesses. The Retropharyngeal phlegmon can be unsealed from the side of neck, conducting a cut along the back edge of sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle.In the cellulose of retropharyngeal space, after the section of skin, hypodermic cellulose, superficial fasciae, vagina of sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle, penetrate by a dull way. Wound of drainage. I Recommend you a good book, illuminative these questions – â€Å"Essays of festering surgery†, 1965 Author of it, professor V. Vojno-Jasenetcky, man of very interesting fate. BARING OF ARTERIES ON NECK Baring of general carotid Findings. Wound aneurism of vessel, angyographic research, introduction of medicinal matters, if introduction by their puncture through a skin is not succeeded.Position of patient. A patient lies on back with a roller under scapulars. A head is thrown back backwards and turned aside opposite to interference. A cut is conducted long 5-6 sm at the cutting edge of sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle from the level of upper edge of thyroid cartilage downward. Layer a skin, hypodermic fatty cellulose, superficial fasciae, and hypodermic muscle, is dissected. The front wall of vagina of sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle is cut. Take a muscle outside, the back wall of vagina of muscle and vagina of vascular-nervous bunch is cut.In a cellulose most mesial and a general carotid is deeper disposed, ahead and lateral an internal jugular vein lies from it. A wandering nerve lies at the back semicircumferences of these vessels. At the wounds edge to the carotid presently lay on a vascular stitch or produce the plastic arts of artery (its substitution of autovein is possible or synthetic vascular prosthetic appliance from polymeric connections). At bandaging of artery there are serious complications as softening influence of areas of cerebrum and subsequent proof paralyses in 30% of cases. Baring of outward carotidFindings. Wound of vessel, vast wounds linden-tree, attended with bleeding from a maxilla artery; an artery is bandaged at the delete of upper maxilla and parotid salivary gland concerning malignant tumours. Position of patient on the back, a head is turned aside opposite to interference. A cut is conducted long 5-6 sm from the corner of lower maxilla downward, along the cutting edge of sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle. Layer tissues are dissected. Take an outward jugular vein upwards and outside or bandage and dissect. It is necessary to distinguish an outward carotid from internal one.In the case of necessity bandaging of outward carotid lay on ligature higher than place of departs upper thyroid artery. In the case of departs close from bifurcation edge the last to the carotid, an outward carotid is bandaged higher by the places of departs tongue artery. Complications. In the case of the low bandaging of outward carotid a bifurcation general carotid can have a blood clot closing a road clearance and internal carotid, practically there will be an obturator general carotid. Bandaging of tongue artery in the Pyrogov's triangle now is not practically conducted. Vagosympathetic blockageFindings. Wounds of breast with closed and opened pneumothorax, attended with pleuropulmonary shock; combined wounds of organs of abdominal region pectoral and. A blockage is produced with the purpose of breaking of pain impulses from the damaged regions. Position of patient. A patient is laid on the back with a roller under scapulars. Throw back a head backward and turn aside opposite to interference. Reference points the corner of crossing of outward jugular vein with the back edge of sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle serves for introduction of needle (at the level of sublingual bone).By an index finger at the place of piercing needle together with a vascular -nervous bunch move aside a sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle ahead and mesial, after anaesthetizing of skin on an index finger stick long needle. A needle is moved forward from a top to the bottom outside inward to the front surface of neck vertebrae. Draw off a needle from a spine on 0,5 sm and in a cellulose behind the vagina of vascular-nervous bunch enter of a 40-50 ml 0,25% solution of Novocain. Hyperemia of skin of face and sclera on the side of blockage comes during the correct conducting of blockage.There is the Claude Bernar-Gorner syndrome: narrowing of pupil, narrowing of eyeing crack, enophthalmos zapadenye eyeball. Neck’s organs Complication of anatomic structure and topographical-anatomic location of organs of neck in a great deal determines the features of operative interferences on them. In area of neck the initial departments of organs of digestion (esophagus, esophagus), external breathing (larynx, trachea) are disposed, thyroid and parathyroid glands, lymphatic vessels (the largest is pectoral channel).Also here are large vessels and interlacements of spinal nerves, nervous interlacements of organs and vessels. It should be noted that lymphatic vessels and vascular-nervous trunks of neck are covered only by soft tissues. Therefore, at the front and from sides they comparatively are poorly protected. One of topographical-anatomic features of neck is that all superficial skinning nerves of neck (from neck interlacement (?1 – ?4) go out practically in one point at the level of middle of back edge of sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle, that allows to produce anaesthetizing at operations on a neck practically by one prick.In area of neck there are numerous reflexogenic areas, which appear by nervous interlacements of organs, vascular-nervous interlacements of organs, vascular-nervous bunches, neck department of sympathetic trunk, neck and humeral interlacements. It is the important facial touch of organs of neck them mobility at meatus of hea d, which has the practical value at operative interferences. LARYNX Represented 9th by cartilages: by thyroid, cricoidea, epiglottis, two arytenoidea, two cuneiformis and two corniculata. Most essential from them re thyroid and cricoid’s, linked between itself lig. cricothiroideum. The front department of cricoid’s cartilage and undercuts on the upper edge of thyroid cartilage are external reference points at surgical interferences. Ahead a larynx is covered by epiglottis muscles, from one side the stakes of thyroid adjoin to it, behind a mouthful. Blood supply is carried out by upper and lower laryngeal arteries outgoing accordingly from upper and lower thyroid arteries. Innervations by the upper laryngeal nerve (from a wandering nerve) and lower (eventual branch of recurrent laryngeal nerve).Lymphatic outflow is carried out in pre-laryngeal, pretracheal, paratracheal and deep lymphatic knots of neck. TRACHEA Represented by cartilaginous semicircular connected by dens e copulas. Back departments are locked by a dense connective tissue bridge, where muscular fibres pass. Within the limits of neck 6-8 cartilaginous rings are counted, position of which corresponds to the bend of neck vertebrae. At the front tracheas the isthmus of thyroid lies, its stakes and general carotids adjoin from one side. Behind a esophagus is located.In a furrow between a esophagus and trachea a recurrent laryngeal nerve passes on the left, on the right this nerve goes behind a trachea. Blood supply of trachea is carried out by the tracheal branches of lower thyroid artery, innervations – branches of recurrent laryngeal nerve. PHARYNX Three basic departments of pharynx are selected: nasal, mouth and laryngeal. A lymphatic pharynx ring (Pyrogov – Val'deyer) which it is represented is important anatomic formation of pharynx: by two palatal tonsils, two pipe, pharynx and tongue.In area of nasal and mouth parts of pharynx there are the juxtapharyngeal and retroph aryngeal cellulose spaces delimited from each other by partition between pre-vertebral and pharynx fasciae. Front and back departments are selected in juxtapharyngeal cellulose space, in which pass important anatomic formations. Retropharyngeal space is divided by middle partition on two departments. Because of what retropharyngeal abscesses, as a rule, are one-sided. A pharynx is disposed most deeply and behind it pre-vertebral fasciae, long muscles of neck and bodies of vertebrae is located.Ahead of laryngeal part of pharynx a larynx is disposed; from sides are stakes of thyroid and general carotids. Blood supply is carried out by the branches of ascending pharynx artery, ascending and descending palatal, and also upper and lower thyroid arteries. Innervation of pharynx takes place due to the branches of sympathetic, wandering and glossopharyngeal nerves. Lymphatic outflow takes place in deep neck lymphatic knots. ESOPHAGUS A esophagus passes to the esophagus, in which distinguish neck, pectoral and abdominal parts and accordingly narrowing.Neck part of esophagus lies in loose cellulose between a trachea and pre-vertebral fascia. He is easily displaced, however, basic axis a few displaced to the left, which matters very much at the choice of operative access to neck part of esophagus. From one side to the esophagus are disposed the stakes of thyroid, at the front is cricoid’s cartilage of larynx and cartilages of trachea. Blood supply of neck part of esophagus is carried out by the branches of lower thyroid arteries. Innervation – due to the branches of wandering nerve. Lymphatic outflow – in deep neck lymphatic knots.THYROID It is one of the largest endocrine glands. It is disposed in the sublingual region of neck on the front surface of trachea. It consists of two stakes, isthmus and in 30-40% of cases a pyramidal stake can walk away from an isthmus or left stake. Weight of gland hesitates from 15 to 50g. An isthmus is represented by a lamina, width to 1,5 sm and usually covers 2-3 cartilaginous rings of trachea. Lateral stakes lie on both sides a trachea and larynx, an oval form is had. A thyroid has an own capsule, which the visceral sheet of fourth fasciae of neck is over.Vessels, nerves and parathyroid, pass between the capsule of gland and fascia. At the front a thyroid adjoins with sterno-sublingual, sterno-thyroid and scapular-sublingual muscles; behind – with the upper department of neck part of trachea, larynx, pharynx, esophagus and parathyroid. To the back mesial surface of thyroid a recurrent nerve joins and laryngeal, general carotid. Blood supply of thyroid is carried out by pair upper (branches of outward carotid) and lower (branches of thyroidneck trunk) thyroid arteries, and at 10 % people – yet and by a fifth odd artery.The vein outflow from a gland is carried out in the vein interlacement located by sympathetic trunks and laryngeal nerves. However, it should be remembered that at the lower edge of thyroid a lower thyroid artery is crossed by a lower laryngeal nerve which it is easily possible to injure at operations, that phonation results in violation. LATERAL NECK TRIANGLE (TRIGONUM COLI LATERALIS) Limited at the front by the back edge of sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle, behind – cutting edge of trapezoid muscle, from below by a collar-bone. Layers: A skin is thin, mobile, elastic.Hypodermic cellulose is developed moderately. Superficial fasciae of neck and in a lower department hypodermic muscle of neck. V. jugularis externa passes in the lower department of region along the back edge of sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle. Skinning branches of neck interlacement: front, middle, back. Subclavian branches of nerve of n. supraclaviculares anterior, media, posteriori. Other skinning nerves of neck interlacement go out at the middle of back edge of sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle: n. occipitalis minor, n. auricularis magnus, n. cutaneus colii.Second fasciae or supe rficial sheet of own a fascia of neck is disposed as one sheet registering to the front surface of collar-bone. Third fasciae or deep sheet of own fasciae of neck within the limits of outward triangle occupy a lower front corner only, I. e. trigonum omoclaviculare (in trigonum omotrapezoideum third fasciae it is not). Between second and fifth fasciae cellulose, additional nerve, is disposed. Fifth fasciae or pre-vertebral, covering mm. scaleni, m. levator scapule and other The vascular-nervous bunch of outward neck triangle is made by a subclavian artery (its third department) and humeral interlacement.They go out through an interstair interval. Humeral interlacement is disposed here higher and outside, subclavian artery – below and inward. From a subclavian artery the last branch is transversal artery of neck (a. transversa coli) departs here, and also its branches ?. cervicalis superficialis et a. suprascapularis pass. A subclavian artery abandons the region of neck, going downward on the front surface of the first rib (I. e. between a collar-bone and first rib); the projection of it here corresponds to the middle of collar-bone.A subclavian vein is disposed on the first rib, but ahead and below of the same name artery, behind a collar-bone and further passes in spatium antescalenum, where muscle is dissociated from the artery of front stair. DEEP INTRAMUSCULAR INTERVALS In a lower department and behind a sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle, outside from neck entrails, there are two intervals: nearer to the surface is prescalenum interval (spatium antescalenum); lying deeper is stair-vertebral triangle (trigonum scalenovertebralis). The Prescalenum interval is formed: behind – front stair muscle (m. calenius anterior), at the front – m. sternohyoideus and sternothyroideus, outside – m. sternocleidomastoideus. Between front and middle stair muscles there is spatium intrascalenum, which is located already within the limits of outward neck triangle. Within the limits of interval there is an internal jugular vein with its lower bulb (bulbus v. jugularis inferior), wandering nerve (n. vagus) and initial department of carotid (a. carotis communis). There is v. subclavia in the lowermost department of interval, meeting with v. jugularis interna; the place of confluence is designated as angulus venous.An outward jugular vein falls in a vein corner usually, in addition ductus bracicus falls in it on left, and on right – ductus lymphticus dexter. In an interval also there is a diaphragmatic nerve (n. phrenicus) arising out of fourth neck nerve, disposed on the front surface of front stair muscle and covered by pre-vertebral fascia. A nerve goes in slanting direction from top to bottom, outside of inward and passes to front mediastinum between subclavian by an artery and vein of outside from a wandering nerve. Higher collar-bones nip a nerve across a. transversa colli et v. suprascapularis.A stair-vertebral triangle is disposed at back of lower mesial department of sterno-cleido-mastoid region and limited: lateral – front stair muscle, mesial – long muscle of necks, from below – dome of pleura. An apex corresponds to the carotid tubercle of transversal process of the VI neck vertebra. In this triangle under prevertebral fascia necks are disposed: on the left is initial department of subclavian artery, eventual department of pectoral channel, on the right is eventual department of right lymphatic channel and lower knot of sympathetic trunk. A subclavian artery (a. ubclavia) behind and from below adjoins to the dome of pleura. Ahead of right subclavian artery a vein corner is disposed. Between it and a. subclavia passes wandering and diaphragmatic nerves, which a subclavian loop (ama subclavia) and n. sympathies beds between. Behind a subclavian artery there is a right recurrent laryngeal nerve (n. laryngeus recurrens), inward from it – a. carotis communis. Ahead of left subclavian artery an internal jugular vein and initial department of left brachiocephalic vein (v. brachiocephalica sinistra) is disposed, between which pass n. vagus, ansa subclavia, n. sympathici and n. hrenicus. Inward from an artery passes a left recurrent laryngeal nerve. The arc of pectoral channel more frequent is located ahead of this department of subclavian artery. Three departments are selected in a subclavian artery: – from the beginning of artery to the interstair triangle; – in an interstair interval; – from an interstair interval to the apex of armpit pit. In the first department a subclavian artery gives the following branches: †¢ vertebral (a. vertebralis); †¢ thyroidneck trunk (truncus thyreocervicalis) dividing into four branches: †¢ lower thyroid (a. thyroidea inferior); †¢ ascending neck (a. ervicalis ascendens); †¢ superficial neck (a. cervicalis superficialis); †¢ suprascapular (a. suprascapularis); †¢ i nternal pectoral (a. thoracica interna) In the second department is costal-neck trunk (truncus costocervicalis). There is the transversal artery of neck in the third department (a. transversa coli). TRACHEOSTOMY It is operation of imposition of stomy on a trachea. Produce tracheostomy as urgent operation at a sharp asphyxia; how prophylactic at operations on the organs of mouth and neck; in an anesthesiology for conducting of anesthesia (intubation). Basic findings to implementation of tracheostomy: impassability of larynx and upper department of trachea as a result of their obturation by a tumor, foreign body, paralysis and spasm of vocal copulas with closing of entrance in a larynx, and also traumas and edema of larynx; – coma of any etiology with violation of swallowing, aspiration by vomitive the masses, saliva, blood in respiratory tracts; – disorders of breathing at patients with a heavy cranial-cerebral trauma and trauma of thorax; – respiratory insuffici ency arising up as a result of proof oppression of central mechanisms of breathing; – heavy postoperative respiratory insufficiency; necessity of the protracted artificial ventilation. Types of tracheostomy are upper (supracricoid) middle (intracricoid) and lower (subcricoid) tracheostomy. More frequent execute upper tracheotomy and conicotomy, at which cross a copula (ligamentum conicum) between thyroid and cricoid cartilages. Technique of conducting of upper tracheostomy Position of patient on the back with the maximally thrown back head. Under scapulars is roller. During conducting of cut it should be remembered basic topographic- anatomic relations of trachea and other organs of neck.So facade and from one side overhead part of trachea joins with a thyroid, to lower part with the cellulose of pretracheal space; backwards from a trachea there is the esophagus forced out to the left. On the left a trachea and esophagus disposes a recurrent nerve; on the right a recurrent ne rve is deeper behind a trachea on the lateral wall of esophagus. Next to the lower department of neck part of trachea there are general carotids, shoulder is head trunk, arc of aorta and left shoulder is head vein.At implementation of upper produce a tracheostomy cut exactly on the middle line of neck from the middle of thyroid cartilage downward on 4-5 sm or transversal, approximate above the isthmus of thyroid. Layer a wound is unsealed, bleeding is stopped. Muscles bluntly move apart and draw off in sides; the first tracheal rings are opened. The isthmus of thyroid is drawn off downward, and a trachea is fixed either for a cricoid cartilage or for the first rings of trachea. It enables freely to manipulate at the section of rings of trachea.A trachea is dissected on the size of diameter of entered cannule by a scalpel â€Å"dosed by gauze serviettes† for warning of damage of esophagus. After expansion of road clearance of the unsealed trachea cannule is entered from one si de, and then translated it in a sagittal plane. After introduction of cannule a wound is taken in layer, cannule is fixed round a neck. CONICOTOMY Soft pit is groped between the lower edges of thyroid cartilage and pulled out arc of cricoid cartilage. Skinning cut longitudinal to appearance of the yellow coloring (ligamentum conicum) cross. This copula goes horizontally.Such cut can be produced â€Å"one moment† through a skin and copula. In opening cannule is entered and is fixed round a neck. This interference is temporal. Technically simpler for implementation is upper tracheostomy, however, it not always is possible from pride of place of isthmus of thyroid, and at children it is practically impossible. Therefore, presently got the preference lower tracheostomy, to which a cranial-cerebral trauma and damage of neck department of spine is contra-indication. COMPLICATIONS AT TRACHEOSTOMY Complications at tracheostomy depend on the errors assumed during operation: 1.So a cut not on the middle line of neck can result in the damage of neck veins, and sometimes and carotid. 2. The insufficient stop of bleeding before dissection of trachea can result in the hit of blood in respiratory tracts, which will cause heavy aspiration pneumonia. 3. Air embolism at the damage of neck veins is possible. 4. Length of cut of trachea must correspond to the sizes of entered cannule. At small cut is origin of narrowing and squeezes tissues round it, that substantially hampers the withdrawal of cannule; a too large cut can result in hypodermic emphysema with the subsequent growing in the road clearance of trachea. . Before conducting of section of rings of trachea follows strictly â€Å"to measure† out the edge of scalpel (it must not exceed 1 sm, not to injure a esophagus). 6. At introduction of cannule to the road clearance of trachea, it is necessary expressly to make sure, that the mucous membrane of trachea is cut, otherwise cannule will enter in submucous tiss ue that will aggravate difficulty in breathing. OPERATIONS ON NECK DEPARTMENT OF ESOPHAGUS Findings. Wounds of esophagus, foreign bodies, which it is not succeeded to extract at esophagoscopy, tumours and proof scar narrowing.Position of patient on the back with a roller under scapulars, a head is thrown back and turned to the right, because a esophagus deviates to the left of middle line and conduct interference on left of neck. Operation is conducted under the local anaesthetizing, at children under anesthesia. A cut is conducted along the cutting edge of sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle on the left of the jugular undercuting of breastbone to the upper edge of thyroid cartilage. Layer a skin, hypodermic cellulose, is dissected, superficial fasciae together with hypodermic muscle necks.The vagina of sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle is unsealed. Take a muscle outside. The back wall of its vagina is unsealed. Bare and dissect III and IV fasciae of neck. Vascular-nervous bunch together with s terno-cleido-mastoid take muscle outside. Cut the parietal sheet of IV fasciae inward from a vascular-nervous bunch. A lower thyroid artery, probutting V fasciae of neck, is bandaged. In a tracheoesophagal furrow find and take a left recurrent laryngeal nerve aside. Sterno-sublingual and sterno-thyroid muscles together with a trachea are taken to the right.A esophagus bares. A esophagus is determined on the longitudinally directed bunches of muscular fibres and rose-grey color. At the wound of esophagus in a stomach through a mouth a probe is entered, the wound of esophagus above a probe is taken in. Drainages are tricked into. In the case of the complete crossing of esophagus, a stomach-pump is inserted in its lower end, upper part tamponade. Afterwards the probe entered through the wound of esophagus, replace by the probe conducted through a nose. The damaged esophagus either is sewn together or produced its plastic arts.At suppuration of juxtaesophagal cellulose on meatus of esop hagus gauze tampons are downward conducted. A patient is laid with the dropped head end of bed. Such position is instrumental in the free separation of pus from back mediastinum. In the case of delay of foreign body in a esophagus, at this level on it lay on two gauze serviettes, sewing the wall of esophagus to the mucous membrane. An organ is destroyed in a wound. After surrounding of esophagus by the serviettes of it unseal longitudinally, thus a muscular shell is cut at first, and then mucous, which raise by pincers.If a foreign body formed bedsore, a esophagus at that rate is unsealed within the limits of healthy tissues. Foreign bodies are taken away by fingers or instrument. There are sutures on the wall of esophagus. Taking in of wound of esophagus is begun with imposition on its corners of lygature. The row of deep catgut stitches is further laid on through all layers of edges of